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Welcome to the Senior Project course, CA 491.
Required for everyone:
Rubin, R. B. Rubin, A. M. Rubin, Linda J. Piele, L. J. (latest edition). Communication research: Strategies and sources. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Additional Options
1 Submit Proposal At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
In this unit, you will learn about the expectations for the senior project, ethical behaviors, and submit the senior project proposal you prepared in your first term or research course.
You are rapidly approaching graduation. The senior project is a final step in synthesizing your work as a Communication Arts major. This course should be one of the most challenging and interesting of your career at Park University. You will or have chosen a topic that fascinates you. In the project, you will conduct an in-depth study of the topic. Make sure you are passionate about the topic because you will have a significant time investment in your study. This process takes much self-discipline and will power as you work independently on your project. You will have much freedom about your work, but you are required to work every week and submit a progress report through online discussion EACH WEEK. You'll need to stay motivated and focused. If you need help, don't hesitate to use these course materials and to contact your professor. Procrastination in this process may result in failure to graduate. So keep your eye on the prize--graduation--and motivate yourself to get the job done!
The principal means of scientific communication is the research paper. Over the years, the format of such reports has become standardized in a way to best meet the requirements of scientific communication. The conventions for writing a scientific report are concerned with the organization of the report and the style of presentation. Report writing must be both brief and clear.
The theoretical basis of the study must be emphasized. The reader of the report must be able to understand how prediction follows from theory. The report must be clear in every detail concerning the manner in which the study was carried out. The report must show precisely how conditions were set up to permit manipulation or the study of the variables in the o order demanded by the hypothesis.
The report must be sufficiently detailed to permit the exact duplication of the study by another independent researcher. Finally, the report must state what results were obtained and what interpretation of these can be made within the context of the theory. An experimental report is a complete cycle beginning with theory and ending with theory. Your APA Publication Manual can be your guide.
1. Title Page 2. Abstract 3. Introduction 4. Method (e.g., content analysis) a. Participants b. Apparatus/Materials c. Procedure 5. Results 6. Discussion 7. References 8. Appendix 9 . Tables 1 0. Figures
You can obtain information by reading the American Psychological Association Publication Manual and Elements of Style, by Strunk and White. An electronic version of the Strunk and White book is available: click here.
Introduce the problem. Why is this problem important? Discuss the theories that are the foundation for your area of study. Develop the background. What is the theory-building or theoretical foundation--cite specific theories--for the research?
State the purpose, rationale, hypothesis.
Describe the design: the experimental method, including the apparatus, data-gathering procedures, complete test names, description of the participants or subjects and sampling. The questionnaire or apparatus (or materials) and their function in the experiment. The procedure (experimental manipulations, randomization, control features in the design). Summarize or paraphrase instructions. Tell the reader what you will do and how you will do it in sufficient detail so that a read could reasonably replicate your study.
1.10 Results
1.11 Discussion (Not included in the proposal, but in the final project).
A solid method of research you can use is content analysis. In content analysis, you evaluate a text (e.g., website, television advertisement, speech). Or you may analyze multiple texts by the same author or the same genre (type). Below are some excellent websites, which explain content analysis.
No IRB approval is needed if you use public documents (e.g., websites, newspaper articles, magazine advertisements) for your content analysis. The idea of content analysis is to look for patterns. Can you categorize If a link doesn't operate, you can use Google to find your own. Make sure you use a college professor's .edu site so that you can be confident that the website has valid information. Content Analysis (Colorado State) http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/
Content Analysis (University of Texas) http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html Method of content analysis of documents at a University of Kansas project site: http://web.ku.edu/~keds/
A case study is a detailed analysis of single situation. In this type of project, you will use a case from your experience or reading. You will detail the example as an illustration of communication theories and principles you learned in the review of literature.
No IRB approval is needed if you use your personal knowledge or review public records to write your case study. If you use personal knowledge, you will want to synthesize instances without revealing the actual names of any people or organizations.
According to instructions for undergraduate students at Sheffield Hallam University, "Whilst it is possible for dissertations to be entirely literature-based, the most common form of dissertation [also known as project or thesis] takes the form of a case study. Here the focus of attention is on a particular community, organisation or set of documents. The attraction of this kind of dissertation is that it stems from empirical curiosity but is at the same time practical. You may be interested in a wider question but a case study enables you to focus on a specific example. A major challenge in case study dissertations is connecting your own primary research or re-analysis with the broader theoretical themes and empirical concerns of the existing literature." http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s9.html
If the information is public--taken from news accounts--you can use the real name of the company and people involved. Cite all sources of information using APA style.
Otherwise, make of names so information so they are not identifiable and information is kept confidential.
Below are the guidelines for writing and formatting of case studies for publication by IGI Global, which may serve as a useful guidelines for this course.
BACKGROUND
SETTING THE STAGE
CASE DESCRIPTION
CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING THE ORGANIZATION
PLAN SUPPORT MATERIAL
In consideration
of this, we ask that in addition to your completed case study, you
also provide three teaching aids:
1. Questions and AnswersPlease prepare a list of 5-7 questions relevant to the issues, problems and challenges discussed in your case. Then provide a concise paragraph of 30-50 words in answer to each question. Feel free to create your own questions or use and adapt the sample questions listed below.
1.
What is the overall problem
2.
What are the factors affecting the problem 3. Discuss managerial, organizational, and technological issues and resources related to this case.
4.
What role do different players
5.
What are the possible alternatives and pros and cons of each
alternative facing the organization in dealing with the problem
6.
What are some of the emerging technologies that should be considered
in solving the problem 7. What is the final solution that can be recommended to the management of the organization described in the case? Provide your arguments in support of the recommended solution.
2. Epilogue and Lessons LearnedPlease provide an epilogue paragraph in which you discuss the long-range effects of your case. Do not include an epilogue in your actual case study. Next, provide a list of 3-5 lessons, along with a concise explanation of each, that in your opinion, can be learned from your study.
3. List of Additional Sources
Please prepare a
list of other resources
Here is a student example. Note that everything in your paper should be doublespaced. Because of html coding and eCollege presentation, formatting may not be exactly correct. See your APA Manual for the exact requirements.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL INTRODUCTION Problem Communication apprehension and social anxiety have become an increasingly important topic in the field of organizational communication. Relatively little research has been conducted regarding the specific effects that this condition can have on an individual’s professional life, and the steps that can be taken to improve the condition (e.g., Ayres, 1992; Cole & McCroskey, 2003). Research studies conducted on communication apprehension address problems such as job satisfaction (Ayres & Winiecki, 1999), communication efficacy (Bennett & Rhodes, 1988), and treatment plans (Ablamowicz, 2005). Because communication behaviors directly affect the accomplishment of organizational goals, this is a significant topic for future research. Communication apprehension is defined as “an individual’s level of fear associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (Gibbs, Javidi, & Rosenfeld, 1994, p. 209). This apprehension can adversely affect the exchange of information within an organizational setting. Gibbs, Javidi, and Rosenfeld (1994) found that when employees feel apprehension and anxiety about communicating with other individuals, it is likely that ideas will be misconstrued, and important information could potentially be left out. Furthermore, individuals that experience communication apprehension are perceived as less competent, less likely to report a problem, and less likely to become leaders (1994). Based on Gibbs, Javidi, and Rosenfeld, communication apprehension problems are also apparent in the interview process. Individuals with communication apprehension are usually offered fewer opportunities for interviews. Those who do participate in interviews are often perceived as less competent, less successful, and less likely to develop meaningful and productive relationships with their coworkers. Individuals with communication apprehension are more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs if they are forced to engage in oral communication, and do not perform their jobs as well as those that do not experience these symptoms (Gibbs, Javidi, & Rosenfeld, 1994). Study Relevance The influence of communication apprehension on work raises additional questions for research. Employers may want to know what has caused the initial apprehension of communication in those individuals that experience this condition. This knowledge may eventually lead to a successful treatment or program aimed specifically at helping individuals with communication apprehension to be less fearful in the workplace. There are several reasons why communication apprehension in the workplace may be a valuable area of research. A more sound understanding of communication apprehension may ultimately lead to greater organizational success, and greater intrapersonal well-being. Studies have shown that employees who are self-confident are more likely to demonstrate effective communication skills, be more satisfied with their jobs, and ultimately lead to the success of the organization (Gibbs, Javidi, & Rosenfeld, 1994). Communication skills are essential in every aspect of life (Alley-Young, 2005). Without the ability to communicate, an individual would have difficulty finding a job in order to support themselves and a family. Without effective organizational communication skills, an organization would not be able to meet goals in order to achieve their desired mission. For these reasons, research in the topic of communication apprehension is necessary, especially when discussing customer-facing positions. A decrease in effective communication between the customer and the individual servicing that customer could be detrimental to the success of the employee as well as the organization as a whole. In the proposed study, individuals participating in customer service positions may or may not experience communication apprehension more frequently and with more intensity than those who are not in customer service (customer-facing) career fields. The research questions are as follows: R1 Do employees in customer service positions experience more communication apprehension than employees in positions that do not have a high amount of customer interaction? R2 If employees in customer service positions do experience more communication apprehension than employees that do not have a high amount of customer interaction, in what ways do they experience communication apprehension? The purpose of the current study is to explore a possible link between communication apprehension and customer service positions. While past research has revealed the impact that communication apprehension has on the success of employees as well as organizations as a whole, there has been little research regarding specific career fields and how their job influences levels of communication apprehension. The current study will add a new area of analysis in communication apprehension in the workplace.
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"Give us the tools and we will
finish the job."
You have the tools from your four years in the Park University Communication Arts Program. Now you can finish the job!
Make sure you have submitted your senior project proposal in the dropbox, have the required permissions, and can begin collecting data.
Collect Data and Write At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
In this unit, you will implement your proposal. You need to plunge in and start collecting data and writing the proposal.
http://www.morris.umn.edu/academic/philosophy/Photos/senior%20thesis%20cartoon.jpg
Here are the tasks you will want to complete in this unit:
Review the APA manual and textbook materials to keep you focused on how to write the project.
Take the Research and APA test to make sure you have the background to proceed in the last stages of your senior project.
IRB APPROVED. If you have IRB approval, send out your survey or email people about completing the SurveyMonkey.com link. Collect data.
CONTENT ANALYSIS. Collect data about the documents you are analyzing.
CASE STUDY Collect data for the case you are writing from personal knowledge or review of public documents.
Here is a segment from a student's review of literature.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This review of literature will give a general explanation of research related to the field of organizational communication and communication apprehension. Although communication apprehension has been the topic of studies (e.g., Ablamowicz, 2005; Behnke, Mann, & Young, 2004; Cole & McCroskey, 2003), relatively little is known regarding specific job positions, especially those centered around customer service (customer-facing), and the affect customer service work has on communication apprehension. Communication Apprehension Communication apprehension is probably the most widely studied construct in communication studies (e.g., Lederman, 1986; McCroskey, 1983; McCroskey, Nesser, & Wheeless, 1986). The possible causes of communication apprehension has been an area of various research perspectives (e.g., Beatty, Heisel, & McCroskey, 1998; Beatty & McCroskey, 2000; Heisel, McCroskey, & Richmond, 1999; McCroskey, McCroskey, & Richmond, 1989) as scholars defined the nature of communication apprehension (Adkins, Duran, & Zakahi, 1994; Beatty & McCroskey, 1984; Booth-Butterfield, 1988; Diehl, Hansford, & Wilson, 1987). Probably the most extensive research relates to communication apprehension and oral communication or public speaking (Andriate & Beatty, 1985; Fordham & Gabbin, 1996; McCroskey, 2004). Related to the role of communication apprehension in intercultural communication (e.g., Barraclough, Christophel, & McCroskey, 1988; Chadouir, McCroskey, & Neuliep, 2003; McCroskey & Toale, 2001), scholars have also studied communication apprehension as it relates to people learning English as a first or second language (Jung & McCroskey, 2004). Communication apprehension has also been studied as it relates to education (Atwater, Bahrenfuss, Cawelti, Chesebro, Gaudino, & McCroskey, 1992; Beatty & McCroskey, 2000; Booth-Butterfield, McCroskey & Payne, 1989; Ericson & Gardner, 1992). Other areas of research are communication apprehension related to health (Beynon, Booth-Butterfield, & Chory, 1997; Heisel, McCroskey, Richmond, & Smith, 1998) and age (Downs, Javidi, & Nussbaum, 1987). Relevant to the proposed thesis, the topics of the development of communication apprehension, workplace environments, and communication efficacy between individuals seem key to developing an appropriate theoretical basis for this thesis research. According to Kim and Sharkey (2007), self-construal, embarrassability, and communication apprehension are all linked together. These researchers stated that self-construal and embarassability provide some guidance to why people develop an apprehension for communication. Their research fails to determine how the negative self-perceptions and high levels of embarassability are developed. Bennett and Rhodes discussed writing apprehension as it relates to specific job positions. Five hundred people were randomly selected from clerical, technical, secretarial, professional, supervisory, and administrative positions from two manufacturing firms in the Midwest. The findings from this study suggest that there was a significant difference between high apprehensives and low apprehensives. The authors suggest that management may want to take a closer look at the writing productivity occurring in high writing intensity jobs (1988). Workplace Perhaps most relevant to this proposed study is the research about communication apprehension in the workplace over the last 25 years (Cole & McCroskey, 2003; Davis, McCroskey, Richmond, 1986; Frymier & Smith, 2006; McCroskey, & Richmond, 1979). Ayres and Winiecki (1999), for example, studied the effects of communication apprehension in the workplace. Their research suggested that communication apprehension has an effect on whether or not an individual decides to stay with an organization, and if the individual’s salary is affected by the apprehension. The researchers do not seem to consider the steps that corporate leadership has taken in order to decrease the turnover rate, or to identify what is causing the decrease of communication in the organization. Behnke, Mann, and Young (2004) discussed how communication apprehension has an impact on an individual’s ability to successfully interview and obtain a job. Their research suggested that communication apprehension affected job interviews, and whether or not the individual’s conditions could influence obtaining the job. Communication apprehension also influences the way the interviewer perceives the interviewee. During a public speaking situation, they found anxiety levels are highest immediately before the presentation. In contrast, anxiety levels during an interview remain stable until the interview is complete. Adapting strategies used to improve public speaking could potentially help resolve some anxiety issues during employment interviews. Key factors during the interview that affect whether or not the employer is going to hire the interviewee are eye contact, body language, voice level, and projected confidence. Furthermore, interviewers perceive highly anxious people to be less trustworthy, less task-oriented, and less socially attractive than others who do not show signs of high levels of apprehension or anxiety (2004). Davis, McCroskey, and Richmond (1986) studied the effects of communication apprehension between employees and their supervisors. The sample consisted of 328 employees from various organizations and areas of employment. Several measures were used in this study. McCroskey’s (1982) PRCA-24 was used to determine trait-like communication apprehension, while audience-based apprehension was measured using the McCroskey and Richmond (1982) Situational Apprehension Measure. In order to determine a subject’s affect toward a supervisor, the Job Descriptive Index developed by Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969) was used. The study revealed that trait-like communication apprehension is a significant predictor of audience-based communication apprehension as it is related to subordinate-supervisor communication. The study also found that as satisfaction with a subject’s supervisor decreases, anxiety about communicating with them increases (1982). Pacanowsky and O’Donnell-Trujillo (1982) studied communication apprehension in terms of organizational culture. Studying rites and rituals, ceremonies, and organizational behavior of employees in certain organizations has revealed whether or not communication apprehension is a problem within their organization. Smith (2000) studied three different personality types and how they were linked to job satisfaction, assertiveness, and communication apprehension. The personality types included “upward mobile,” “ambivalent,” and “indifferent.” The study revealed that all three personality types had some relation to communication apprehension, which demonstrates that any person, no matter what personality type, has the potential to develop communication apprehension. Gibbs, Javidi, and Rosenfeld (1994) explained the relationship between self-reported communication apprehension, job satisfaction, and organizational behaviors. The results of the study conducted by the authors revealed that individuals are less satisfied when they are forced to do something. Being forced to do something can also increase apprehension and anxiety. Furthermore, individuals with high levels of communication apprehension are usually dissatisfied with their supervisors, because the individuals may perceive them as threatening and not compassionate. The literature does not mention suggestions for improvement on behalf of the organization. Communication Efficacy
Additional information was deleted. You will want to organize your review of literature according to a few key ideas that emerge from your research. Please focus on peer-reviewed, scholarly journal articles from EBSCO Communication and Mass Media Complete.
A research project looks like this: 1. This is what I've been thinking about. (theory) 2. This is what other people have said about what I've been thinking about. (review) 3. This is what I think I would find if I looked to test my ideas. (hypotheses) 4. By the way, when I say "X," I mean this and that. (operationalization) 5. This is my plan for looking. (design) 6. These are the kinds of people, places, and things I am going to look at. (sample) 7. This is what I found out. (findings) 8. This is what the findings mean. (analysis) 9. This is how what I found relates to the ideas I had at the beginning. (conclusion) 10. Given all this, I think we should look at . . . . (implications)
Format for Writing and Organizing Your Research Proposal and Project Use underlined words as headings to indicate sections in your paper. “APA number” refers to the section in the
APA manual, which describes what this section should contain. Use your spell and grammar check. Number pages. Double-space everything.
APA 1.06 Title Page Use a descriptive scholarly title, which clearly explains the paper’s content—NOT an attention-getter. Give your name, Park University, date.
APA 1.07 Abstract (100 -150 word summary of the question, method, and results)
APA 1.08 I. Introduction This is the background to the problem. A. Research question. 1. A brief history of interest in the area. 2. Specify unresolved issues, theoretical questions, and/or social concerns. 3. Rationale for the study. B. Review of Literature. A review of literature is an examination of key peer-reviewed journal articles on the topic. Theory Building (Group information according to ideas, NOT according to research articles. This section is NOT an annotated bibliography). Please use subheadings to generally describe each idea. 1. Paragraphs about first idea from review of literature. 2. Paragraphs about second idea from review of literature. 3. Paragraphs about third idea from review of literature. C. Problem Statement -- Drawing from the literature review of 20-50 sources, explain the ideas you plan to investigate. Include the following: 1. Identify variables (dependent and independent variables). 2. Delineate the research problem to explain the relationships expected among variables (research questions or hypotheses).
APA 1.09 Method 1. Description of Method a. Describe why the research method (e.g., survey research) is used. 2. Instruments or measures a. Operational definitions of dependent and independent variables b. Instrument – rationale for the measure to be used (e.g., questionnaire, focus group, interview). 3. Participants and procedures a. Selection of subjects (i.e., who and how to get them -- sampling procedure). b. Explain how materials will be distributed. c. Describe how data will be collected. d. Describe how data will be analyzed.
APA 1.10 Results
APA 1.11 Discussion Use the present tense as you take the reader through your inferences.
APA 1.13 References (emphasize quantitative, peer-reviewed articles in the field of Communication). Each reference listing will be cited in your final proposal and each citation in your final proposal will be in the reference list.
APA 1.14 Appendix (e.g., measure or unpublished test and its validation, the printout of results from surveymonkey.com).
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"Nothing is so fatiguing as the eternal hanging on of an uncompleted task." ~William James
Instead of constantly worrying about finishing, work a little every day. Make progress daily and stay focused on the task. No one can do your senior project except you.
In this unit, you learned about how to start collecting data and organizing your written senior project. In the next unit, you will begin analyzing your data.
Analyze Data At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
In this unit, you will learn about how to analyze the data you have collected for your senior project. If you are conducting a content analysis, you will need to determine patterns and categories. If you are writing a case study, you will need to put the information together in a story that demonstrates communication principles. You can do it!
http://www.pyrczak.com/antiplagiarism/images/Roomie.gif
Analyze data and write results. Follow up on data collection by sending reminders. Run another database search of peer-reviewed articles to see if there are articles you missed and need to include. Write up the results.
Here is what APA says about the results (p. 20). "The Results section summarizes the data collected and the statistical or data analytic treatment used. Report the data in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. Mention all relevant results, including those that are counter to the hypothesis. Do not include individual scores or raw data. Discussing the implications of the results is not appropriate here."
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Here is a student example segment.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL METHODOLOGY
This study examined whether or not reported communication apprehension is more prevalent in individuals with customer service jobs. In addition, this study examined how participants perceive their communication with customers. Procedures A service company was contacted about employee participation in the study. After receiving approval from the service company, a recruitment letter (see Appendix B) was put in the mailbox of each potential participant. Participants were directed to a stack of survey packets near the mailboxes. Participants completed the survey on their own, retailed the consent and contact information, and returned the completed survey in the same envelope to a box provided for the surveys. The PRCA-24 and questions were numbered so that the information was paired for each participant. Participants were unable to complete the survey during work time, but were free to take the survey home. Participants There were a total of 58 participants in this study. Participants were recruited on a voluntary basis. Of those 58 participants, the data from 7 participants was incomplete and therefore not used in the study. Participants were required to be at least eighteen years of age at the time of current study. Participants were recruited from employees of a store located in a southern state. Also, snowball sampling was used after the survey was created online using a website. Emails containing the web address and instructions (see Appendix G) on how to complete the survey were sent to various distribution lists in order to start the snowball sampling process. By using respondents to refer other respondents, the chances of recruiting interested participants in customer service increased. The nonprobability approach of snowball sampling may have introduced bias into the results. Participants were not members of any protected groups. No names or demographic data were collected. No deception was involved in this research. There was no financial gain for anyone involved in this research. There were no anticipated benefits or risks for the participants. The participant may have felt a sense of satisfaction for helping a graduate student in the Communication program at Park University. There were no known risks in the survey. Data Collection No demographic information of any kind (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) was collected. No person in a supervisory position distributed questionnaires or were involved in any kind of data collection. No pilot was conducted. Volunteers from each department picked up an envelope containing consent information (Appendix D), the PRCA-24 (Appendix E), the survey (Appendix F). Once participants read the consent information, they completed the PRCA-24 (Appendix E) and a survey (Appendix F). Once completed, participants returned the assessment and survey to a secure envelope so that the information would be kept confidential. The participants that were involved in the online version of the study received an email with identical instructions. Once they completed the PRCA-24, they were instructed to complete the survey. When completed, they were directed to a page thanking the participant. The author had no knowledge of who would participate in this part of the study and no computer data was collected, thus participants’ responses were anonymous. The introductory information provided information typically included in a consent form. Because no names were collected, participants were not required to sign the consent form. A follow-up page was included, which thanked participants and included contact information. In case a subject felt upset by any question, a written list of local counselors and human relations specialists were given to the participant. Results from the study were made available to participants in aggregate form, but no personal identifying information of any kind was included in the distribution. PRCA-24 This study measured communication apprehension with the McCroskey’s (1982) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24). This measure has been shown to be effective in communication research (Booth-Butterfield & Gould, 1986; Duran & Kelley, 1990; Duran & Zakahi, 1985; McCroskey, 1992; Ray & Soares, 1986). McCroskey’s (1982) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) was chosen is because this one is one of the most established assessments related to communication apprehension (Beatty, Kearney, Levine & McCroskey, 1990; McCroskey, & Plax, 1985; Roberts & Vinson, 1994). Research has consistently shown that the PRCA-24 is internally reliable, with alpha reliability coefficients ranging from .93 to .95. Also, test-retest coefficients greater than .80 have been reported, which indicates that the measure is stable across time (McCroskey, 1982). Beatty, Kearney, McCroskey, and Plax (1985) examined the content validity of the PRCA-24. Research indicated that the scores produced by the measure are independent of the content of the items employed and are effective of predicting apprehension.
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"There are a million ways to lose a work day, but not even a single way to get one back." ~Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister
In this unit, you analyzed the data you collected so that you could make sense of your work. Stay motivated and no procrastination allowed.
Write Results and Discussion At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
In this unit, you will focus on writing up your senior project.
Do You Have a Job Yet? According to KMBC ABC news (May 20, 2009) only 20% of college grads will have a job when they graduate. Now is the time to set aside time every week to job hunt. Park University has excellent career development services, which you will want to use. They tell us that the process is taking longer than usual because of the economy, so if you haven't already done so, start now. Like everything else, you have to take the initiative to contact them, have them review your resume, conduct mock interviews, and obtain real contacts and interviews. http://www.park.edu/career/
You may also want to set up a backup plan--such as graduate school at Park http://park.edu/grad/masters-cl.aspx or at another University.
Now is a good time to take the GRE. You'll never know more about an array of subjects than right now. If you take the test, it will be good for years. Then if you decide to go to graduate school, you have the GRE done. http://www.ets.org/
"If at first you don't succeed, you're running about average." ~M. H. Alderson
The first thing you need to do is convert your proposal to the actual senior project paper. Change the future tense of your proposal to past tense.
Continue to read and update your review of literature as needed.
Then write up the results and a discussion of your results. In the data analysis, you need to figure out what your data means.
In a content analysis, what patterns
did you find? What categories did
you find? What are the implications
of your data?
Academic Support Center: Ask the writing lab to go over your project.The Academic Support Center is located in Mabee 406, near the library. We offer many services to help our students with their academic progress. All our services are free of charge to Park University students! ACTUALLY MAKE AN APPOINTMENT, GO IN WITH YOUR PROJECT PAPER, AND OBTAIN THEIR HELP! http://www.park.edu/support/
The Academic Support Center is open many hours, but please make an appointment to go over there. 816-584-6330
Online students also can use Smarthinking.
Here is a student example.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL RESULTS
The results were obtained from 51 participants, which included 21 people who work in customer service and 30 people who do not work in customer service. The results are summarized in tables 1, 2, and 3. In the general population, one would expect about 70% of the population to be in the middle ranges of communication apprehension, 20% with high apprehension, and 10% with low apprehension. A high apprehension score is higher than 80 and a low apprehension score is lower than 51 (McCroskey, 1982).
Table1 Comparison of Customer Service and Non Customer Service Workers
Chi-square: 2.597 degrees of freedom: 2 p-value: 0.2729 No significant difference
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"The two rules of procrastination: 1) Do it today. 2) Tomorrow will be today tomorrow." ~Author Unknown
Sit down and write. Sometimes while you write, ideas come to you. Write a little every day and you'll be able to put everything together for a solid draft this week.
" I couldn't wait for success... so I went ahead without it." ~Jonathan Winters
Submit Your Final Project. At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
Now is the time to put together everything you've done on your project and submit.
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"Some people dream of success... while others wake up and work hard at it." ~Author Unknown
Your senior project is due this week.
APA says the following (p. 26). "After presenting the results, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret their implications, especially with respect to your original hypothesis. You are free to examine, interpret, and qualify the results, as well as to draw inferences from them. Emphasize any theoretical consequences of the results and the validity of your conclusions.
"Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport for your original hypothesis."
"Acknowledge limitations, and address alternative explanations of results."
"End the Discussion section with commentary on the importance of your findings. This concluding section may be brief or extensive, provided that is tightly reasoned and self-contained."
Here is an example segment from a student paper.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL DISCUSSION
The results of this study suggest that employees who work in customer service may have lower communication apprehension than the population at large. Although the small cell size in calculating Chi-square makes the results suspect, there does seem to be a pattern emerging. The participants who work in customer service showed lower communication apprehension than predicted before the research began. There are a disproportionate number of participants in customer service with low apprehension when compared to the general population expectancy. In this study, the "Not" group has a distribution of scores more similar to the normative test data. Although both groups have lower communication apprehension than the general population previously studied with this test that may be attributed to the fact that the PRCA has been used extensively with college students. Perhaps non-college students and older students have less communication apprehension in general. Perhaps the sample is too small to know.
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
Anthony Robbins
Time to master your senior project and submit! In this unit, you synthesized everything together into your final project. Your professor will try to give you feedback in about a week after the due date so that you will know if you need to make major revisions before the end of the term.
Revise. At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
Now that you've had a few days away from your project, think about what else you need to do to improve the project. The project should be evolving in your mind and on paper this week. You don't need anyone else's feedback to know what you should strengthen in your senior project.
http://christopherscottblog.typepad.com/
Add, elaborate, and polish. You already know what you need to do.
Do you need to rewrite the Discussion and Directions for Future Research sections? Make sure you have a coherent whole of the proposal materials in a coherent way with the results, discussion, and future directions section.
Here is a segment from a student example of a reference list.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL REFERENCES Ablamowicz, H. (2005). Using a speech apprehension questionnaire as a tool to reduce students’ fear of public speaking. Communication Teacher, 19(3), 98-102. Adkins, M., Duran R. L., & Zakahi, W. R. (1994). Social anxiety, only skin deep? The relationship between ratings of physical attractiveness and social anxiety. Communication Research Reports, 11(1), 23-31. Andriate, G. S., & Beatty, M. J. (1985). Communication apprehension and general anxiety in the prediction of public speaking anxiety. Communication Quarterly, 33(3), 174-184. Atwater, D. F., Bahrenfuss, R. M., Cawelti, G, Chesebro, J. W., Gaudino, J. L., Hodges, H, et al. (1992). Communication apprehension and self-perceived communication competence of at-risk students. Communication Education, 41(4). Ayres, J. (1992). An examination of the impact of anticipated communication and communication apprehension on negative thinking, task relevant thinking, and recall. Communication Research Reports, 9(1), 3-11. Ayres, J., Heuett, B. L., & Hsu, C. (2003). Testing a screening procedure in the treatments for communication apprehension. Communication Research Reports, 20(3), 219-229. Ayres, J., & Winiecki, K. J. (1999). Communication apprehension and receiver apprehension in the workplace. Communication Quarterly, 47(4), 431-440.
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"Thinking is easy, acting is difficult, and to put one's thoughts into action is the most difficult thing in the world." -Goethe
This week you had "percolating" time so that you could think about how to improve your senior project. Soon, you should receive feedback from your professor about major changes. Meanwhile, make the changes you already know you need.
Final Revision. At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
During this unit, you will figure out what you need to revise, improve, and explain more. You're close to achieving your goal now.
Do you have all the needed parts to your senior project? Title Page Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References Appendix of Text Analyzed (or Measure and SurveyMonkey Printout if that method was approved by IRB). Sunday of week 7 for 8 week course OR Monday of week 15 for 16 week course is the absolute final deadline for submitting revised senior project to raise your grade. An incomplete grade requires a physician's excuse for the late assignment.
Here is a segment from a student example of Appendices.
THE EFFECTS OF CUSTOMER SERVICE POSITIONS ON COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION By MELISSA L. MCCONNELL APPENDIX E PERSONAL REPORT OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION (PRCA-24) There is no copyright for this measure, which is released by the author for general use without fee. Complete and return this survey. Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24)
DIRECTIONS: This instrument is composed of twenty-four statements concerning feelings about communicating with other people. Please indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you
(1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
"Doing a job badly and then getting someone in to sort it out can be much more expensive than getting someone in to do the job properly in the first place."
Sarah Beeny Are you finished yet? Go ahead with any final submission.
Closure. At the end of this unit, the student should be able to
Now you should be ready to graduate. Reflect on your work and your success.
http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~arch/www/cartoon.jpg
Weekly Progress Report (Required by Friday please) Respond to other students by Sunday. How are you staying motivated to work independently? Did you submit new material to the senior project dropbox? What work did you accomplish this week on your senior project? What problems did you solve? What strategies are you using to keep to the timeline? Have you completed this unit's required tasks?
CONGRATULATIONS!
START Q/A Link
Current Course Core Assessment Rubric
Additional Proposed Rubric for Core Assessment
Core Assessment
The Senior Project is a major academic work, which is the culmination of study in the Communication Arts program.
Key: A = 2 or more exceeds, nothing below meets expectations. B = Nothing below "meets expectations." C = 1 or 2 below "meets expectations." D = 3-5 below "meets expectations."
Example Term Two Grading: Weekly discussion board progress report and discussion update with professor. 40% APA Test 20% (Must be passed at 80% mastery to receive any grade. 80% = 16 points.) Hardcopy of final project: 40% Extra credit revision to raise grade, Revision 10%
Late materials not accepted.
See your syllabus https://park.edu/syllabus/list.aspx or talk to your professor regarding grading in this course. Dr. Aitken is the course developer, but your professor may make changes and has the latitude to make major revisions to the course, including grading policies and assignments.
Please do not expect grading information or eCollege content to be updated until the class starts. The eCollege course shell is copied weeks in advance, but your professor may not have access until day one of the course.
Your professor may provide access to the Gradebook inside eCollege. The link is a tab in the upper part of the screen inside the eCollege course. This gradebook can provide information about assignment values. Important points to remember.
Discussion Board 56% Test(s) - 20% Core Assessment - 24%
90-100 A 80-89.99 B 70-79.99 C 60-69.99 D
Notice Course Tools are across the top. The Gradebook is accessed through the link at the top.
Most faculty have students submit key assignments in the Dropbox.
Some faculty use Doc Sharing so students can download information and peer work. The Doc Sharing tells how many downloads there are, so faculty know if students are looking at those elements.
In fact, the system tells faculty how many times you access each part of the course and dates of your activity.
Open the Gradebook so you can see all assignments (below is just a segment of a gradebook page).
This view will allow you to access feedback and see the weight of each grade. Different faculty will set up the gradebook, assignments, and grading weights differently.
An important point about the gradebook is that you have to click on the blue links to access feedback information from your professor.
You'll see a plus sign on the left, which requires another click on the plus sign to access all the feedback information. You'll see something that looks like the picture below.
Your professor cannot see the gradebook as you do, so if you need help accessing professor feedback, please contact eCollege. For technical assistance with the Online classroom, email eCollegeHelpDesk@parkonline.org or call the helpdesk at 866-301-PARK (7275). They will be glad to walk you through pages so you understand how it works.
You probably will take the two sections back-to-back.
Term ONE PROPOSAL Write your proposal, which is your plan. Define the topic and problem. Write a survey of literature using 3-5 conceptual threads. Cite and reference 20 peer-reviewed scholarly research articles. Write the research method you plan to use. Submit your proposal plan week 12.
Term TWO PROJECT Conduct your study, analyze, and write up the results. Update, synthesize, and rewrite. Finalize.
READ REQUIRED TEXTBOOK(S)
The online format provides an opportunity to use the set up course materials and to interact with other students working on their projects, whether you are located in the Parkville, Missouri or distance locations.
Colleges and universities are not designed to be vocational schools. Unlike trade schools that prepare students for a specific career (e.g. auto repair, hair dressing), the four-year college/university is dedicated to educating citizens for social, political, and economic life. Some classes that may not be perceived as “relevant” (i.e., direct application to a career) are relevant to the future of the student as an effective member of society. If the sole emphasis is on “getting a job,” the immediate goal may threaten the broader issue of what jobs might exist in the future. A person who is narrowly trained to do a job today may be out of a job tomorrow. Over specialization may result in the specialty becoming obsolete in the long run. The Communication Theory and Human Relations graduate is prepared not only for entry-level jobs, but also has the skills sought for middle management positions. Jobs in human resources, training and development, staff development, public relations, sales, or management are potential career choices. Others may choose to pursue additional study in graduate schools.
Grading Key: A= 2 or more "exceeds" selected and nothing below meets expectations. B=Nothing below "meets expectations." C=1 or 2 below selections "meets expectations." D=3-5 below "meets expectations." Communication Arts Program Goals 1. The graduate recognizes excellence in professional activities and demonstrates the ability to create high level professional work. The graduate demonstrates professional dispositions in all activities. 2. The graduate demonstrates effective communication across cultures and audiences in her personal and professional life. The graduate recognizes the centrality of effective communication in societies and among peoples. 3. The graduate engages in critical and strategic thinking in personal and professional decision making. 4. The graduate applies ethical principles in resolving professional questions always recognizing the connection between professional communicators and their communities. The graduate’s personal and professional ethics are in harmony. The graduate expresses the desire to utilize her profession for the good of her community. 5. The graduate demonstrates appreciation of the First Amendment, freedom of speech, a free press, open inquiry and open government in the United States and honors the value of free and open discourse in all societies. The graduate also recognizes and applies the corresponding responsibilities inherent in such an open society in her personal and professional conduct. 6. The graduate demonstrates familiarity with the history and canon of the profession. 7. The graduate demonstrates awareness of the modern symbolic environment, discerns the implicit and explicit messages contained in a variety of texts, then applies her understanding of symbols and effects to her personal and professional life.
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Parts
of the Proposal Manuscript
1.06
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Available for purchase from allposters.com
Textbook: Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey research: A guide to quantitative methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
The Action Research Project is typically an applied study, which is short on library research and long on actual survey, focus group, or other active data collection and analysis. Talk with your advisor in advance, and submit your proposal to the faculty. You can use a proposal prepared in another course (e.g., CA 517).
Project Organization APA 1.06 Title Page Use a descriptive scholarly title, which clearly explains the paper’s content—NOT an attention-getter. Give your name, Park University, date. APA 1.07 Abstract (100 -150 word summary of the question, method, and results) APA 1.08 I. Introduction This is the background to the problem. A. Research question. 1. A brief history of interest in the area. 2. Specify unresolved issues, theoretical questions, and/or social concerns. 3. Rationale for the study. B. Review of Literature. A review of literature is an examination of key peer-reviewed journal articles on the topic. In an action research project, this might be a brief overview of theory building in the field. Group information according to ideas, NOT according to research articles. This section is NOT an annotated bibliography. Please use subheadings to generally describe each idea. 1. Paragraphs about first idea from review of literature. 2. Paragraphs about second idea from review of literature. 3. Paragraphs about third idea from review of literature. C. Problem Statement -- Drawing from the literature review of 20-50 sources, explain the ideas you plan to investigate. Include the following: 1. Identify variables (dependent and independent variables). 2. Delineate the research problem to explain the relationships expected among variables (research questions or hypotheses). APA 1.09 Method 1. Description of Method a. Describe why the research method (e.g., survey research) is used. 2. Instruments or measures a. Operational definitions of dependent and independent variables b. Instrument – rationale for the measure to be used (e.g., questionnaire, focus group, interview). 3. Participants and procedures a. Selection of subjects (i.e., who and how to get them -- sampling procedure). b. Explain how materials will be distributed. c. Describe how data will be collected. d. Describe how data will be analyzed. APA 1.10 Results APA 1.11 Discussion APA 1.13 References (emphasize peer-reviewed articles in the field of Communication). Each reference listing needs to be cited in your final proposal and each citation in your final proposal will be in the reference list. APA 1.14 Appendix (e.g., text under study, measure or unpublished test and its validation, the printout of results from surveymonkey.com).
Outline 1. Why We Do Research.
2. Finding Ideas to Research.
3. Designing Research: Concepts, Hypotheses, and Measurement.
4. Developing a Questionnaire.
5. Sampling.
6. Presenting Data: Descriptive Statistics.
7. Analyzing Data: Bivariate Relationships.
8. Analyzing Data: Comparing Means.
9. Analyzing Data: Multiple Variables.
10. Presenting Results, Making Conclusions, and Writing Reports.
Learning Goals In this chapter, the differences between everyday thinking and scientific thinking are discussed. An argument is made about the advantages of doing survey research and understanding various kinds of research: exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and evaluation. The chapter concludes with a comparison of quantitative and qualitative research methods. By the conclusion, you should be able to give examples of everyday thinking, discuss the components of scientific reasoning, list the different types of research methods, and describe them. The purpose of this chapter is to understand that the quantitative research method is one of many different ways people come to understand the world around them. Some argue that the social and behavioral sciences (such as sociology, psychology, political science, and anthropology) are not “real sciences” and that any attempts to mimic them just do not work. After all, social sciences deal with human behavior, that is, it is governed by free will and the vagaries of every day life. Science just won’t do. Engaging students in a debate about what is science and what is not is a good way to begin a course that emphasizes the more scientific, quantifiable, and statistical methods used to gather data. The outcome could be a solid understanding that the scientific method itself might also be a “social construction,” albeit one that has been verified over time and has withstood numerous attempts to change it. Equally productive is to help students arrive at an awareness of the many ways throughout a typical day they engage in both “scientific” methods and “everyday thinking” with its inaccurate generalizations and sampling techniques. This allows them to see that we manage to survive without scientific reasoning in many daily routines, yet for many important decisions we depend on a more structured and systematic method. This also gets students to see that they already know some quantitative methods and that the course will build on their strengths and develop the techniques in more depth. It goes without saying that many students are frightened, worried, and anxious about the quantitative methods or statistics course. This is often not an elective chosen to fill out their schedule, but a requirement for their major. Whatever can be done the first day to alleviate these concerns should be done. And one way is to engage them in a discussion of what they already know that could be helpful in learning the course’s material.
Chapter Two
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
Discovering topics to study by
searching for research ideas and
finding existing studies is one of
the goals of this chapter. Learning
to write a good literature review is
discussed, especially in the context
of using theory to guide your
research. The chapter also raises
the ethical issues involved in doing
research. By the end of the chapter
you should be able to search for
topics in the library and in
computer databases, write a coherent
and focused review of the research
literature, and raise the ethical
concerns various kinds of research
topics might create.
Students
often
wonder where to begin a research
project. Too many times, they have a
very large topic that is virtually
impossible to study and they need to
learn how to narrow it to something
more manageable. Understanding how
to do a good library search and
literature review is an important
step in the research process. If
often
helps to bring in examples of literature reviews from journal articles
and show the students what goes into
writing them. Too
often
people begin by summarizing one
study
after
another without any attempt at
distilling key themes or organizing
them in any coherent way.
All
research requires attention to
ethics and ethical matters should be
a major focus of the discussion.
Ethical issues are easily
illustrated with actual examples
from research studies and by
presenting situations that can
result in
different
ethical dilemmas and
interpretations. The key goal is to
open
students’
eyes
to the impact of
what they are doing, not just to
have them come up with a definite
solution to an ethical
situation.
Chapter Three
DESIGNING RESEARCH: CONCEPTS,
HYPOTHESES, AND
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
Central to doing survey research is
understanding the idea of
operationalization and how to go
from ideas to concepts to variables.
Learning the various levels of
measurement is also essential for
analyzing data. This chapter
discusses how to write
hypotheses using independent and
dependent variables and how to
evaluate the reliability and
validity of measures. By the end of
the chapter you should be able to
distinguish the different levels of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, and
interval/ratio; discuss the various
kinds of reliability and validity;
and write one-directional,
twodirectional, and null
hypotheses.
This
chapter is central to the use of
statistics later in the book.
Decisions about which statistic to
use are typically based on their
levels of measurement, so it is
crucial that you spend time working
through the topics in Chapter 3.
These ideas can be difficult ones to
grasp initially, especially if you
are unfamiliar with research. If you
have questions, be sure to talk to
your advisor.
Although many of the concepts have
everyday meanings (such as reliable,
valid, hypothesize, median) slightly
different from the scientific usage,
it does facilitate learning to think
about how you use them in ordinary
conversations. In so doing, the
terms and concepts might seem less
foreign to your.
It
is also important to communicate
that how researchers decide to
measure a concept can affect the
subsequent data analysis and
interpretations. Think about
“trade-offs” decisions and how no
study can be perfectly designed,
which helps to illustrate that some
choices even at these early stages
of research can have differing
impacts later on.
This is also a good time to think
about the “art” of doing research,
that is, to think about the creative
element in the design of research.
When researchers have to construct
their own measurements, to develop
interesting and unique research
questions or hypotheses, and to
decide on which concepts to assess,
they have the
opportunity to create innovative
work. The easy way is to simply do
what everyone else has, but
the imaginative route is to do
something unique.
Chapter Four
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
In
this chapter you will read about the
strengths and weaknesses of
different types of
survey methods. You will also learn
how to design a questionnaire: How
to write attitude, behavior,
and demographic questions and format
a survey. Coding responses and
preparing data for computer analysis
are important skills discussed as
well. By the end of the chapter, you
should be able to critique poorly
written questionnaires, write a good
questionnaire for distribution in a
small study, and understand the
different ways of designing
questions and format for surveys.
Writing a questionnaire is a creative task that comes more
easily to some than to
others. Faced with a blank screen or
piece of paper, many people have no
idea where or how to begin. This
chapter provides some guidelines
about putting together a good survey
for beginners.
Like
any writing assignment, drafts
should be reviewed and comments
provided on early versions of any
survey. It is important that enough
time be planned to allow for
rewrites and learning how to write a
survey good enough to distribute.
One useful task is to have other
students in the course or friends be
respondents for your survey. They
can “take” the survey and provide
feedback before a final version is
printed or put on SurveyMonkey and
distributed.
Sometimes it helps to think about
and to talk out loud about what you
want to know. Too often students
have a very vague or broad idea
about what to study. This makes it
difficult to begin to write a clear
and concise questionnaire. Carry on
a conversation with a friend about
the topic. How would you begin? What
kinds of things would you like to
know that you don’t know already?
Talk with your advisor about your
ideas.
As
with all new skills, practice is
important, so the more you can
review published questionnaires,
poor quality ones in magazines and
junk mail, and items printed in
academic articles, the more you will
see what goes into operationalizing,
formatting, and designing a
questionnaire.
You may want to use a questionnaire
that has been developed by a scholar
or professional in the field of
communication studies. That approach
is fine too.
Chapter Five
SAMPLING
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
This
chapter explains random probability
sampling and describes
different
methods for obtaining samples. You
will learn about longitudinal and
cross-sectional research designs. By
the end of the chapter you should be
able to distinguish several types of
probability and non-probability
sampling, describe various kinds of
longitudinal research designs, and
explain the idea of sampling error.
There are many ways to generate a
sample of respondents, but only a
few methods allow researchers to
make generalizations about a
population with any accuracy and
consistency. A key idea is to
recognized that unless you use a
probability sampling technique, your
results can only be reported about
those people completing the study.
The results will not be
generalizable.
Many
people erroneously assume that going
around and giving out surveys
randomly results in an actual random
sample.
It’s
important to distinguish the everyday use of the word
“random”
from
the more scientific meaning it has
when attached to sampling
strategies.
Most
assignments for a Master's project
do not allow the time and do not
have the funds to generate a large
sample. Yet it is not impossible to
attempt a random sample strategy.
More than likely, however, the
return rate for surveys, especially
on a college campus, is too low to
result in a representative or random
sample. Understand the limitations
of the sample you are likely to
generate.
Critical thinking plays an important
part in reading surveys and journal
articles. Think about call-in or
on-line computer surveys--e.g.,
SurveyMonkey.com.
As
always, journal articles provide
ample examples of sampling and the
limitations of response rates in
actual research.
Chapter Six
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
Understanding how to describe your
findings using graphs, tables, and
statistics is the focus of this
chapter. By the end of the chapter
you should be able to decide how to
use the mean, median, mode, standard
deviation when presenting data. You
should also understand the concept
of the normal curve and z-scores. In
addition, you will learn the idea of
probability and statistical
significance.
This
is the first of four chapters
devoted to explaining basic
statistical analyses. And this
information is the start of much
anxiety for many students. If
needed, your advisor can help you
review some very basic mathematics
and reassure you that the most
important skill is thinking
quantitatively, not calculating
arithmetic. You can use calculators,
online calculators, Excel, or SPSS,
or whatever software you want that
your advisor accepts.
What is crucial is your ability
to
make decisions about which
statistics are most appropriate in
different conditions and learning
how to interpret statistical output
and results. Knowing when to use
particular statistics and knowing
what they mean are the skills
stressed in these chapters instead
of how to calculate them by hand.
Some
faculty believe that students really
learn statistics by having them work
through problems and calculating
formulas. Others feel that math
anxiety overwhelms students’
abilities to understand the material
when they are expected to learn the
mathematics. For the purpose of your
project, figure out what you want to
know, what data you will collect,
and how you will analyze that data.
Students often relate well to data
analysis when they see themselves in
it.
The
statistics in Chapter 6 are the
basic building blocks for later
ideas.
Chapter Seven
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
Understanding bivariate statistical
analysis is the focus of this
chapter. Central to this concept is
learning how to read and construct
cross-tables of data and deciding
which statistics to use to measure
association and correlation. By the
end of the chapter you should
understand how to reject or accept a
hypothesis using the appropriate
statistics to
assess bivariate relationships. You
should also be able to put together
cross-tables and interpret
them clearly in words.
Once students understand how to
present data one variable at a time,
they often are eager to know how they could then
test whether there is a relationship
between two of variables at
the same time. How do I know if men
or women are more likely to strongly
agree or disagree with a statement
about interpersonal relationships,
for example?
The
goals of the chapter are to help
students make decisions about which
statistic to use when analyzing
bivariate relationships and how to
interpret the findings
presented in table form with the
accompanying statistics. It’s
important, however, to review
how to set up a crosstable of data.
A very common mistake is to confuse,
for example,
“20 percent of men are
Communication
majors” with
“20 percent of Communication majors are
men.” You may need to work
with your advisor to make sure you
understand how to read tables.
Another typical mistake is for
students to attempt to put
interval/ratio data in tables.
Usually if these variables have many
values (such as GPA) the table will
have multiple empty cells and go on
for pages and pages. The table is
virtually unreadable. Realize that
crosstables are ideally suited to
nominal and ordinal measures.
Now is also the time to think about hypothesis testing and
how you reject or accept a
hypothesis based on the statistic
and its probability level. Much of
the output on computer statistical
programs, such as SPSS, include
items that are beyond the scope of
many students. You may want to read
the chapter, then discuss with your
advisor such ideas as the value of
the statistic and its significance
level. Now is a good time to think
about the elements required to
establish a cause and
effect relationship.
One
other point of confusion is the
increasing value of a correlation
from 0 to 1 and the decreasing value
of probability level from 1 to 0. A
correlation of .05 is not the
same as a probability value
of .05. Make sure you can
distinguish the difference.
Correlations are
measures of strength. Like when you
consider the value of money, the
closer you are to $1.00, the
stronger is the value.
For
alpha levels, realize that is
important to have no probability of
something occurring by accident or
chance. You want to be sure that the
independent variable exerts an
influence on the dependent
one because it is
meaningful, not just because it
could happen accidentally quite
often
(that is, greater than 5 percent of
the time).
Chapter Eight
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
This chapter shows you how to
assess differences between means
using t-tests and analysis of
variance. As with other
bivariate data analysis, knowing
when to use these statistical
procedures and how to interpret
them is central to testing
hypotheses. By the end of the
chapter you should be able to
understand what t-tests and
ANOVA are and when they are
suitable for data analysis.
Until now, you have been
learning to test relationships
between an independent and a
dependent variable. Sometimes,
however, the research question
or hypothesis can be evaluated
by looking at differences in
means. This comparison is
especially appropriate when the
dependent variable is measured
with an interval/ratio scale or
an equal-appearing ordinal
scale. In addition, many
researchers simply want to know
about a difference between two
groups in an experiment, or
between those subjects who
completed the questionnaire and
those who didn’t.
This chapter simply asks if
there is a difference between
two means (t-test) or among
three or more (ANOVA). Don't get
bogged down when trying to
understand the formulas or how
to interpret the output.
Formulas for the t-test and
ANOVA are presented in boxes for
those students who would like to
learn the statistics this way.
Realize that when researchers are comparing scores among groups
or categories of people (such as
between majors and nonmajors),
it is very likely there will be
some difference. It would be
highly unusual for two or more
groups to have the exact same
mean on a particular variable.
Hence, the object is to
understand if the difference
that is evident is a
statistically significant one,
that is, if it could have
occurred by chance alone less
than 5 percent of the time such
samples were analyzed. The
statistical question asked is
also whether that difference
among means is the same as the
difference among means in the
populations from which the
samples were drawn.
In this chapter, the basic ideas
of inferential statistics,
sampling, significance level,
standard errors, and confidence
levels come together in
relatively easily
understood terms. But if these statistical concepts become difficult, the
simplest way to think
about the content is to say that
these statistics (t-test value
and F-value) and their
accompanying probability levels
of significance help us answer
the essential question about
whether there is a difference in
means between two groups or
among three or more categories.
Be careful that you do not
confuse the wording of a
hypothesis used to test
differences with one used to
test relationships. Often
students will write “There is no
difference between gender and
GPA” when they really mean
“There is no difference in
average grades (GPA) between men
and women” or “Men and women
have around the same GPA.” Be
precise.
Chapter Nine
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
This chapter may be beyond the
scope of your project. This
chapter focuses on the analysis
of three or more variables to
answer more complex research
questions. It discusses when to
use various kinds of
multivariate
analyses and how to elaborate
your findings with additional
variables. By the end of the
chapter you should be able to
interpret multiple regression
analyses and perform elaboration
techniques with control
variables.
You may be wondering how to test
out more
elaborate research questions. A
useful technique is to speculate
what variables may be
helpful in explaining a
particular dependent variable.
This chapter introduces you to
some elementary ways of
evaluating the impact of two or
more independent variables on a
dependent variable. You will
want to examine concrete
examples of multivariate
analyses because these concepts
are more easily demonstrated
than explained. In particular,
when discussing elaboration
techniques, you might first try
analyzing actual data yourself
or
find
examples from published
research. It is not easy to
illustrate all the types of
elaboration
(antecedent, intervening,
spurious, specification, and
suppressor relationships) with
real data, so creating
your own fictitious tables may
be required. You may want to
discuss these principles with
your advisor.
Two-way ANOVA is mentioned but
not discussed in detail. Most of
the remaining chapter focuses on
linear regression analysis which
is used quite frequently.
Examples in academic journals
are numerous, and it helps to
distribute these when discussing
regression.
If you have complicated
statistical procedures needed
for your project, you may want
to ask a statistician to help
you.
Chapter Ten
PRESENTING RESULTS, MAKING CONCLUSIONS,
AND WRITING
Quoted directly or closely adapted
from
Nardi, P. M. (2006). Doing survey
research: A guide to quantitative
methods. (2nd ed.) Boston: Pearson.
For use by students who have enrolled in
the course and purchased this textbook.
This information is protected by the
publisher's copyright and is for use
only in this course.
Learning Goals
In this final chapter, learning
to write a report of the
research project is emphasized,
along with the key elements that
go into a presentation of your
study. Understanding the
different audiences reading a
report guides the preparation of
the findings. By the end of the
chapter, you should know the
different styles for presenting
your research and be able to put
together a clear, concise report
targeted to the relevant
audience.
Talk to your advisor about
expectations for your project
report. Students often wonder by
this point what is expected of
them to report. Many of their
attempts to generate a decent
sample may have failed.
Questions they felt were clear
now appear to have been vague
and misunderstood. And their
data analyses could turn up no
significant findings, often due
to small sample sizes. So what
do they have to say in their
write ups of their study?
Learning to present findings is
a very useful skill, including
oral presentations. Your advisor
or the department may require
you to present your project to
other students and faculty.
Examining examples of journal
articles, executive summaries,
and other kinds of reports is
also a good way of illustrating
the various styles of report
writing.
Rather than writing up one final
project, your advisor may
required that you submit
sections of the report
throughout the term. For
example, a literature review
could be due a early in the
course, then a set of hypotheses
or research questions can be
submitted, followed by a
description of the sampling and
a final version of the
questionnaire. Finally, data
analyses are completed and a
final interpretation and
conclusion are written. In this
way, feedback could occur
throughout the term, not just at
the end of the course. Remember
that an 8-week course moves
quickly.
When preparing your project
report, remember there is a
difference between (a.)
speculating about the reasons
for the outcomes and (b.)
speculating about findings and
interpreting with available
data. Too often, students imply
they have data to support an
explanation of the results when
in fact they do not. The project
is a learning process, so be
careful about making inferences
beyond what your data says.
Creative Project Ideas
The
Project is a flexible learning experience, which
fits
into one of multiple project options.
If you want a different type of project,
you will want to work it
out with your professor in advance of enrolling.
eBay business startup.
Online PR and thought
leadership with webpage and
blog.
eBusiness--online
money-making project.
Public Relations
Professional Portfolio
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