Week 2-3 

Life span development is the study of human behavioral change from conception to death.  Genetics, careers, biology and other factors cause the changes.  Stage v. incremental change theory.

PowerPoint

Chapter Outline
 

REFLECTION AND ACTION

The Gap Between Science and Practice

THE BIG PICTURE: MODELS AND

METAPHORS

Stage Models (Freud, Erickson, Piaget)

The theories are different ways to view the same stuff.  We're  reflective practioners.  Do we use a cognitive or behavioral intervention?

FREUD's PERSONALITY THEORY

First, DO NOT DISMISS THE IMPORTANCE OF FREUD

ID--biological self.  Driven by pleasure principle.

EGO--Cognitive and physical skills.  Realistic self.  Reality principle.

SUPEREGO--Guilt.

We study theory as a roadmap to understand people.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

ORAL--mouth (birth-1)

ANAL --overly cautious (age 1-3)

PHALLIC--assertion (3-5 yrs)  Assertion, self-centered vanity

Oedipus & Electra complex

LATENCY (age 6-puberty) Personality evolves

GENITAL (puberty-)

For Freud potty training is about control and pleasure.  Not for Erickson.

ERICKSON  Psychosocial.  Assumed that the child or adult is an active, self-organizing individual who needs only the right social context to move in a positive direction.  See table page 9.

1.  Trust v mistrust (birth)  Toward caregiver.  World is a safe place.  Or may have difficulty bonding. 

2. Autonomy v shame & doubt (age 1-3)     Independence tied to new motor and mental skills.  Co dependency would be a negative outcome.

3.  Initiative v. guilt (3-6)  More "grown up" responsibility.  If do things and are punished, may lead to guilt.  Initiative would be positive things they do.  Could lead to self-destructive behavior, less initiative because feel guilty.

4.  Industry v inferiority  (6-12)  Elementary school.  Compare to others.  Trying to fit in.  Learn academic and social skills--an enormous number of skills.  Able to build things.  Grades.

5.  Identity v role confusion (12-20)  Hobbies.  Which crowd? 

6.  Intimacy v. isolation (young adulthood)  About relationships, being with others, dating, going to school.

7.Generativity v stagnation (middle adulthood). Having children. 

8.  Ego identify v. despair (late adulthood).  Take stock of life.  Legacy. 

For Erickson, he says it goes in this order.

Piaget Cognitive Developmental stages  STAGE

Incremental Models (learning theories, behaviorist tradition, classical and operant conditioning, social learning theory, modeling, information processing theories)  Bandura is social learning theory.

Unlike stages, some models are incremental.  More like climbing a mountain than stairs.

Bandura Bobo doll.  Watched film of aggressive acts toward doll.  Then kids did it. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586465813762682933&ei=lz-CSeSDJqPWqAO9w6SMDg&q=bandura+bobo+doll&hl=en

Bandura's Social learning--Says we learn things from watching things around us and that's the driving force.  Fulfilling the pleasure principle is not the driving force.  The driving force that makes us do what we do is society and what we've learned.

Adler's Individual Psychology

All behavior, thoughts, and emotions are unified.

All people strive for superiority (significance) and social interest.  We all strive to make a difference in the world.We strive to fit, achieve a sense of community, feeling of

Life goals of (a) work, (b) friendship, and (c) love.   belonging.

Modeling, observational learning.

People learn by watching and making generalizations.

The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov.  Classical conditioning is Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R) conditioning since the antecedent stimulus (singular) causes (elicits) the reflexive or involuntary response to occur. 

Classical conditioning.

Two things don't happen at same time.  Unconditioned stimulus (food).  Give the food a split second after the bell so that anticipation happens.

Deal with phobias through desensitization.  Breathe slower--body has no choice except to relax.

Operant conditioning.  Action is reinforced by something pleasurable.

Positive reinforcement--adding something

Negative reinforcement--taking something away  (If you practice the piano 45 minutes, you don't have to do your chores.

Reinforcement is encouraging or encouraging behavior.

Punishment is trying to remove a behavior.

Positive punishment

Negative punishment

Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html Skinner's Behaviorism

Multidimensional or Systems Models  (apply to all domains of development from the cognitive to the social.  Layers or levels.  transactional models, relational models, epigenetic (gene expression) models)

Apply to all domains of development.

Layers, or levels of interacting causes for behavioral change:  Biological, psychological, social, and cultural.  Adler is in here.

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model--proximal processes, reciprocal interactions between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects and symbols in its immediate external environment.

Series of concentric circles.  Multilayer like onion.  Demand characteristics--behavioral tendencies that often either encourage or discourage certain kinds of reactions from others.

Systems

Primary--child, the individual

microsystem (contacts) Neighborhood play area.  Church group.

mesosytem (2 degrees of separation)  How the microsystem relates to each other.  Not a direct effect.

exosystem (environment)

macrosystem (customs and character of the larger culture)  Frameworks of thought.  Politics.

Life span developmental theory

The same developmental processes that produce transformation of infants to children, and children into aduts, are thought to continue throughout adulthood until death.

Biological supports

Cultural supports

APPLYING MODELS AND METAPHORS

MAJOR ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT BIG QUESTIONS

Nature and (not versus) Nurture This is on a spectrum, a continuum.

Critical Periods and Plasticity (any time with right opportunities)  Can a child (or adult) learn things whenever the opportunity or are there critical periods when things are learned easier.  (Language, moor skills)

Continuity (persist, relatively unchanged throughout life) and Discontinuity (product of dynamic interactions)  Does a trait always exist (i.e. shyness)?  Perhaps varying degrees of the trait?  Do events have more or less permanent effects?  Must an issue be dealt with eventually or can it be forgotten?

Universality (basically the same for culture) and Specificity.  Nearly all theories assume that developmental process are the same for all human beings, and cross-cultural research tends to bear this out.

Qualitative (transformational) and Quantitative (incremental) Change.  Are changes aulitative transformations or more like quantitative changes in degree o incremental?

Activity and Passivity How much are we impacted by society, our environment, our genes?  How much are we creators of our own fate?  For example, is the parent controlling the child, or is the child controlling the parent?  How much do we create our own reality?

 

IMPLICATIONS

There are many ways of doing things.  There are different models of educating.  Be flexible.  Have an open mind.

Critically analyze things because of your knowledge.

Open to new ideas.

 

Brain seems to develop forever.

 

APPLICATIONS

SUMMARY

CASE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

JOURNAL QUESTIONS

KEY TERMS

Week 4

Genetic biology

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6CBBzw6xUJEDNA

23 paired chromosomes

Sperm and egg come together and create a genetically new individual.

Genes: 20,000-25,000. They act as a sort of blue print to produce proteins and enzymes

http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3754653362393752644&ei=rCOLSa39MoT0-wGf_uHQDA&hl=en

More on Genes

The genes (genotype)interact to create traits (phenotype)

Dominant are expressed over recessive

Two recessive expressed

Example:

Curly hair=C

Straight hair=c

Inheritance of Sex

XX (female) or XY (male)

Hereditary Diseases

Recessive Gene

Cystic fibrosis

Sickle-cell anemia

Tay-Sachs disease

Hemophilia

Muscular dystrophy

Dominant, defective alleles

Huntington’s

Farsightedness

Test is now undergoing for early detection, possibility for gener therapy

Polygenic origin

Multiple genes involved

Diabetes, Alzheimer’s, alcoholism, schizophrenia

Chromosomal abnormalities

Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Sex-linked

X-linked recessive such as hemophilia, baldness, color blindness

(results in men much more highly affected because there is no second X to get a dominant gene

Explaining Behavior

Human Genome Project

Twin studies between identitical (monozygotic) and fraternal twins (dizygotic)

Heritability-not the same thing as inherited.

The degree to which differences among individuals on a trait may be the result of their having different genes

Shared and non-shared environment.

Twin studies: such as both extraversion and neuroticism have been shown to be much more linked in fraternal twins than identical twins

http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/9690-through-the-lens-genetics-and-identical-twins-video.htm

Environmental Influences

Genes can have three levels of impact on environment:

Passive-due to children and parents sharing genes. Parents genes affects children’s environment, which then influence children’s gene expression

Evocative

A person’s genes affect their own behavior which in turn affect the reaction of another

Active

When people choose their own environment, companions, and activities

Hypertension

Pups with hypertension risk factor do not get hypertension unless raised by a hypertensive mother.

How about IQ?

According to one study, IQ heritability differed depending on one’s SES. In higher SES it was as high as 60%, in poor SES, near 0%.

Epigenetic Model

Development is the result of interacting genetic and environmental elements which are complex and intertwining (Coaction)

Occur at multiple levels of functioning

Environment, behavior, neural activity, genetic activity

Possible therapies

Somatic cell therapy

Insertion of healthy genes into appropriate tissue

Germline therapy

Altering the sperm or egg cells to pass on healthy genes to future generations

Teratogens

From before conception to birth, the environment is that of the mother.

Some things are certainly dangerous for the embryo.

Alcohol: FAS, abnormalities in facial structure, cognitive abilities growth deficits

Tobacco: low birth weight, constricted blood flow, premature birth, respiratory problems, learning problems

Cocaine: Prematurity or still birth, low birth weight, drug withdrawal, ADHD

AIDS: often transmitted to child either in birth canal or in breast milk

Lead: prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage

 

Fetal Health

Nutrition

Exercise

Low stress

Age

Genetic Counseling

Much counseling can be done preparing a family for what the child may have

Also counseling about the family environment both during pregnancy and after

Therapy during pregnancy

Massage therapy

Nutrition

Music???

THE NATURE-NURTURE ILLUSION

MECHANISMS OF GENETIC INFLUENCE: HOW DO GENES WORK?

Biological Inheritance

How Genes Influence Traits

The Inheritance of Sex

Hereditary Diseases

EXPLAINING BEHAVIOR: FOCUS ON GENETICS

Molecular Genetics

Behavior Genetics

Genetic Influences on Environments

SHIFTING FOCUS TO THE COACTION OF GENES AND ENVIRONMENT

Unexpected Sources of Environmental Effects

The Case for Coaction

The Epigenetic Model: A Multidimensional Perspective

HEALTHY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Genetic Interventions

Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development

1 The involvement of genes in choosing environments that support personal behaviors and interests are referred to as:
Active
 
2 An example of a "polygenic origin" disorder, meaning that it runs in families but is not caused by genes at a single chromosomal location is:
Mental Illnesses
Muscular Dystrophy

3 Parents are upset at the physical appearance of their child who is born with a small head, widely spaced eyes, and a flat nose that does not resemble the mother or father. Their child's appearance is a result of:
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

4 Which period of the nine-month gestational period is classified by commencing development of the fetus' organ systems and structures?
The period of the embryo

5 As discussed in the text, the following are all stages that the body goes through when handling stressors, EXCEPT:
Manic phase

6 Methodological criticism of the behavior genetics approach includes:
It is based on the assumption that phenotype is the sum of genetic and environmental influences
The interpretation of findings from twin studies is controversial

7 The textbook talks about the different conditions that influence the negative effect of teratogens on pregnancy. Which of the following statements is NOT a correct principle influencing the impact?
The kind of damage done is the same irrespective of the stage of pregnancy

8 What does the text describe as the body's building blocks?
Proteins

9 Which of the following is NOT a disorder of polygenic origin?
Huntington's chorea

10 What is the division of a normal body cell called?
Mitosis

11 Androgens are:
Necessary hormones in the development of male characteristics

12 Samantha was born with Down's syndrome. As an infant, she was needy and required constant attention from her parents. Her parents therefore became overprotective and "babied" her as a child, keeping her close at all arial and doing many things for her even though she had the ability to do things herself. When she entered school, she was described as immature, clingy, and socially and cognitively delayed. This example illustrates which type of genetic influence on environment?
Evocative

13 According to the text and the Surgeon General, how much alcohol would be considered appropriate for a mother during pregnancy?
No safe dosage

14 Which of the following factors does NOT contribute to the fact that male conceptions outnumber female conceptions 14 to 10 but male births only slightly outnumber female births?
The X chromosomes of all males zygotes have "fragile X syndrome"
Though the X and Y sperm are produced in equal numbers, more Y zygotes are conceived for a multitude of reasons not covered in this chapter. In spite of their fertilizing prowess, the sperm carrying the Y chromosome are more susceptible to prenatal demise; therefore the female zygotes survive the prenatal period better than males. The problem for males is believed to be the mismatched sex chromosomes which make them more susceptible to some genetic disorders than females. The smaller Y chromosome does not carry the matching genes for the X-linked recessive diseases and therefore is more likely to be a victim of these diseases. Though males are more vulnerable to any breakage or dysfunction of the X chromosome, not all X chromosomes of male zygotes have "fragile X syndrome."

15 As children get older, they choose environments and companions that are compatible with their interests. This is an example of:
Niche picking

Week 5

WEEK 6

CAUSES OF EMOTION

Biological

Neurological

Sociological

Psychology

FUNCTION

Survival

Communication

Cognition--help us think in a certain direction

Mental health and wellness

UNIVERSAL

experienced in every culture--fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and surprise. 2-6 months of age

Izard's theory these emotions are innate and are fundamentally connected to neural activity

Sroufe theory--emotions are not full formed

emotional intelligence education

Attachment

Baby Jessica.  2 year old went from adoptive parents to biological parents.

Attachment problems may cause trust problems later.

John Bowlby Theory separation anxiety.  Strange situation videoBasic trust.  Attachment Theory.  Separation anxiety, stranger anxiety

Child will habituation to presence of stranger.

Attachment types

Secure

Insecure  (Anxious ambivalent, avoidance, disorganize-disoriented)

Relationship to Borderline Personality Disorder in  mothers and disorganize-disoriented

Is the attachment style caused by the environment or i it innate?

How might we understand attachment in terms of theory?

Infancy/Early Childhood

In-utero environment

Cognitive senory motor, preopertional, language development, etc.

Emotion:  Basic Emotions, Temperament, Beginning Developent of self, Trust, Goal directed behavior, Initiation, Attachment

Physical:  Growing by leaps and bounds (literally), Heredity.

Neuropsychological:  Brain Development,

Development of self.

Presentl (0-6 monts)

Intentional self/I (6-12 months)

Objective self/Me (12-24 months)  *Self recognition, early self control, early self esteem, look in the mirror and recognize self.

Self monitoring (24-60)  Can describe yourself, regulate yourself. 

Chapter 6 and 7

Introduction to Middle Childhood

Middle Childhood (6-12)

Profound changes in thinking from early childhood to middle childhood.  What differences exist between 2 year old, 5 years olds, and 10 years old?

Concrete operational is sensible, logical.

1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others viewpoints and explore using senses. The sensorimotor stage is divided into six substages: "(1) simple reflexes; (2) first habits and primary circular reactions; (3) secondary circular reactions; (4) coordination of secondary circular reactions; (5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity; and (6) internalization of schemes." ^[4] Simple reflexes is from birth to 1 month old. At this time infants use reflexes such as rooting and sucking. First habits and primary circular reactions is from 1 month to 4 months old. During this time infants learn to coordinate sensation and two types of scheme (habit and circular reactions). A primary circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by accident (ex: sucking thumb). The third stage, secondary circular reactions, occurs when the infant is 4 to 8 months old. At this time they become aware of things beyond their own body; they are more object oriented. At this time they might accidentally shake a rattle and continue to do it for sake of satisfaction. Coordination of secondary circular reactions is from 8 months to 12 months old. During this stage they can do things intentionally. They can now combine and recombine schemes and try to reach a goal (ex: use a stick to reach something). They also understand object permanence during this stage. That is, they understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them. The fifth stage occurs from 12 months old to 18 months old. During this stage infants explore new possibilities of objects; they try different things to get different results. During the last stage they are 18 to 24 months old. During this stage they shift to symbolic thinking. ^[4]

2. Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 5 (magical thinking predominates. Acquisition of motor skills) Egocentricism begins strongly and then weakens. Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking.

3. Concrete operational stage: from ages 5 to 11 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking) Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric.

4. Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

Concrete operational.

Egocentrism.  The failure to recognize your own subjectivity.

Sensible, logical, problem solving.  Private logic.

Complexity is dependent on the domain of knowledge.

Difficult to question already presumed theories (remember the discussion about assimilation and accommodation)

Memory

Sensory Memory (keyboard) --Working Memory (RAM)--Long Term Memory (Hardrive)

Same process works in reversal to retrieve.

Cognitive improvements

Using the digit span test.

Knowledge

Declarative-things we can talk about.

Semantic:  factual information (red lights mean stop)

Episodic:  Knowledge of events remember at time when.  Episodic if you can remember when you learned something.

What is 2 + 2?  Lots of things you know you can't remember when you learned it.

Nondeclarative things that just cannot really be put into words.  Tying your shoes.  Procedural--know how to do things.  Patterns.

Cognitive improvements

Using the digit span test

From 2 digit at age 2 to 5 digit at age 7  (working memory)

Faster processing speed

More knowledge base dna growing depth

Allow for chunking

Greater logical thinking skills

Greater language skills

Memory strategies such as pneumonic devices. 

More improvements

Organizing strategy:  Sorting items in a meaningful way.

Metacognition:  Thinking about our own thinking.

Self instruction and study

Math retrieval instead of counting.

Social Cognition is the understanding of the social world, primarily focuses on the ways people think about other people and they reason about social relationships.

Need social development to reduce egocentrism and promote altruism (social interest)

Friendships

KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. To the Heinz dilemma, the child typically says that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or "It's bad to steal," as if this were all there were to it. When asked to elaborate, the child usually responds in terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad "because you'll get punished" (Kohlberg, 1958b).

Although the vast majority of children at stage 1 oppose Heinz’s theft, it is still possible for a child to support the action and still employ stage 1 reasoning. For example, a child might say, "Heinz can steal it because he asked first and it's not like he stole something big; he won't get punished" (see Rest, 1973). Even though the child agrees with Heinz’s action, the reasoning is still stage 1; the concern is with what authorities permit and punish.

Kohlberg calls stage 1 thinking "preconventional" because children do not yet speak as members of society. Instead, they see morality as something external to themselves, as that which the big people say they must do.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. "Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take the drug, the druggist would not." Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his or her individual interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he wanted his wife to live, but that he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone younger and better-looking (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 24). Another boy said Heinz might steal it because

maybe they had children and he might need someone at home to look after them. But maybe he shouldn't steal it because they might put him in prison for more years than he could stand. (Colby and Kauffman. 1983, p. 300)

What is right for Heinz, then, is what meets his own self-interests.

You might have noticed that children at both stages 1 and 2 talk about punishment. However, they perceive it differently. At stage 1 punishment is tied up in the child's mind with wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. At stage 2, in contrast, punishment is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid.

Although stage 2 respondents sometimes sound amoral, they do have some sense of right action. This is a notion of fair exchange or fair deals. The philosophy is one of returning favors--"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." To the Heinz story, subjects often say that Heinz was right to steal the drug because the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was "trying to rip Heinz off," Or they might say that he should steal for his wife "because she might return the favor some day" (Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 19).

Respondents at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because they speak as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. They see individuals exchanging favors, but there is still no identification with the values of the family or community.

Level II. Conventional Morality

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. At this stage children--who are by now usually entering their teens--see morality as more than simple deals. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in "good" ways. Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust, and concern for others. Heinz, they typically argue, was right to steal the drug because "He was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were good, that of saving the life of someone he loves." Even if Heinz doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he should steal the drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife die" (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 36-42; Kohlberg, 1958b).

If Heinz’s motives were good, the druggist's were bad. The druggist, stage 3 subjects emphasize, was "selfish," "greedy," and "only interested in himself, not another life." Sometimes the respondents become so angry with the druggist that they say that he ought to be put in jail (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 26-29, 40-42). A typical stage 3 response is that of Don, age 13:

It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting someone die. Heinz loved his wife and wanted to save her. I think anyone would. I don't think they would put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that the druggist was charging too much. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25)

We see that Don defines the issue in terms of the actors' character traits and motives. He talks about the loving husband, the unfair druggist, and the understanding judge. His answer deserves the label "conventional "morality" because it assumes that the attitude expressed would be shared by the entire community—"anyone" would be right to do what Heinz did (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25).

As mentioned earlier, there are similarities between Kohlberg's first three stages and Piaget's two stages. In both sequences there is a shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic outlook and to a concern for good motives. For Kohlberg, however, these shifts occur in three stages rather than two.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained. In response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand that Heinz's motives were good, but they cannot condone the theft. What would happen if we all started breaking the laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society couldn't function. As one subject explained,

I don't want to sound like Spiro Agnew, law and order and wave the flag, but if everybody did as he wanted to do, set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong, then I think you would have chaos. The only thing I think we have in civilization nowadays is some sort of legal structure which people are sort of bound to follow. [Society needs] a centralizing framework. (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 140-41)

Because stage 4, subjects make moral decisions from the perspective of society as a whole, they think from a full-fledged member-of-society perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 27).

You will recall that stage 1 children also generally oppose stealing because it breaks the law. Superficially, stage 1 and stage 4 subjects are giving the same response, so we see here why Kohlberg insists that we must probe into the reasoning behind the overt response. Stage 1 children say, "It's wrong to steal" and "It's against the law," but they cannot elaborate any further, except to say that stealing can get a person jailed. Stage 4 respondents, in contrast, have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole--a conception which far exceeds the grasp of the younger child.

Level III. Postconventional Morality

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. At stage 4, people want to keep society functioning. However, a smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. A totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is hardly the moral ideal. At stage 5, people begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights and values that a society ought to uphold. They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior considerations. They are said to take a "prior-to-society" perspective (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 22).

Stage 5 respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a social contract into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all They recognize that different social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that all rational people would agree on two points. First they would all want certain basic rights, such as liberty and life, to be protected Second, they would want some democratic procedures for changing unfair law and for improving society.

In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear that they do not generally favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that we agree to uphold until we can change them by democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife’s right to live is a moral right that must be protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes defend Heinz’s theft in strong language:

It is the husband's duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property.

This young man went on to say that "from a moral standpoint" Heinz should save the life of even a stranger, since to be consistent, the value of a life means any life. When asked if the judge should punish Heinz, he replied:

Usually the moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here they conflict. The judge should weight the moral standpoint more heavily but preserve the legal law in punishing Heinz lightly. (Kohlberg, 1976, p. 38)

Stage 5 subjects,- then, talk about "morality" and "rights" that take some priority over particular laws. Kohlberg insists, however, that we do not judge people to be at stage 5 merely from their verbal labels. We need to look at their social perspective and mode of reasoning. At stage 4, too, subjects frequently talk about the "right to life," but for them this right is legitimized by the authority of their social or religious group (e.g., by the Bible). Presumably, if their group valued property over life, they would too. At stage 5, in contrast, people are making more of an independent effort to think out what any society ought to value. They often reason, for example, that property has little meaning without life. They are trying to determine logically what a society ought to be like (Kohlberg, 1981, pp. 21-22; Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 83).

Stage 6: Universal Principles. Stage 5 respondents are working toward a conception of the good society. They suggest that we need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle disputes through democratic processes. However, democratic processes alone do not always result in outcomes that we intuitively sense are just. A majority, for example, may vote for a law that hinders a minority. Thus, Kohlberg believes that there must be a higher stage--stage 6--which defines the principles by which we achieve justice.

Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well as great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore universal; they apply to all. Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some people but hurts others. The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal respect for all.

In actual practice, Kohlberg says, we can reach just decisions by looking at a situation through one another's eyes. In the Heinz dilemma, this would mean that all parties--the druggist, Heinz, and his wife--take the roles of the others. To do this in an impartial manner, people can assume a "veil of ignorance" (Rawls, 1971), acting as if they do not know which role they will eventually occupy. If the druggist did this, even he would recognize that life must take priority over property; for he wouldn't want to risk finding himself in the wife's shoes with property valued over life. Thus, they would all agree that the wife must be saved--this would be the fair solution. Such a solution, we must note, requires not only impartiality, but the principle that everyone is given full and equal respect. If the wife were considered of less value than the others, a just solution could not be reached.

Until recently, Kohlberg had been scoring some of his subjects at stage 6, but he has temporarily stopped doing so, For one thing, he and other researchers had not been finding subjects who consistently reasoned at this stage. Also, Kohlberg has concluded that his interview dilemmas are not useful for distinguishing between stage 5 and stage 6 thinking. He believes that stage 6 has a clearer and broader conception of universal principles (which include justice as well as individual rights), but feels that his interview fails to draw out this broader understanding. Consequently, he has temporarily dropped stage 6 from his scoring manual, calling it a "theoretical stage" and scoring all postconventional responses as stage 5 (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p. 28).

Theoretically, one issue that distinguishes stage 5 from stage 6 is civil disobedience. Stage 5 would be more hesitant to endorse civil disobedience because of its commitment to the social contract and to changing laws through democratic agreements. Only when an individual right is clearly at stake does violating the law seem justified. At stage 6, in contrast, a commitment to justice makes the rationale for civil disobedience stronger and broader. Martin Luther King, for example, argued that laws are only valid insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. King also recognized, of course, the general need for laws and democratic processes (stages 4 and 5), and he was therefore willing to accept the penalities for his actions. Nevertheless, he believed that the higher principle of justice required civil disobedience (Kohlberg, 198 1, p. 43). http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/kohlberg.htm

The talking tree in the woods.  Each kid hung out on own limb.

Friendships (Selman's theory)

Stage 0:  Undifferentiated, egocentric (3-6)

Stage 1:  Differentiated, subjective (5-9)Lots of order.  Come play on the swings.

Stage 2:  Reciprocal, self-reflective, sharing, cooperative, reciprocity, try to persuade (8-12)

State 3:  Mutual, third person, understand different views (10-15)

Stage 4:  Intimate, in depth, sharing vulnerability, realistic portrayal of self, societal, collaborative, integrative, commitment (late teen)

Social comparison

People observe the performance of others and use it as a basis for evaluating their own abilities and accomplishments.

How to describe weaknesses.  Needs:  Area of growth

Self enhancing bias is your drive to see yoursef in a positive light.  Life is purposive.  Positive beliefs about oneself.

Downward social comparison.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Preconventional.

Stage q punishment and obedience.

Stage 2 do things to get stuff.

Conventional

Stage 3 social relational (shared feelings)

Stage 4 Member of society.  What other people think of you.

Postconventional

Stage 5 Prior right and social contract

Stage 6 Universal ethical principles

Prosocial Behavior

Social interest gemeinschaftgefuhl (Adler) = the feeling with/for the community.

Altrusim

Empathy

Sympathy

Modeling and learning prosocial attitudes.

Non or antisocial behavior

Nonsocial--apethetic

Anti

Presence of aggression, risky, disregard for coial mores.

Oppositional defiant disorder

Conduct disorder

Test next week

Focus on chapter 1 (1/3 questions)  Know theories, stage, models, stages of development, and the names that are the biggest figures.  Know the order of the stages.  Multiple choice or matching.  Know qualitative, plasticity.

Not lot on genetics or brain.coaxion, genes. neuron, how they communicate,

Quiz 1

Name: _______________

1. Jean Piaget’s is well-known for his ________ theory of development

   1. Cognitive

   2. Behavioral

   3. Psychosexual

   4. Multidimensional

2. Broffenbrenner’s bioecological model resembles which of these shapes:

   1. line

   2. Steps

   3. Circle

   4. Rectangle

3. Which of the following major issues of development is concerned with the age at which children seem to no longer have the ability to acquire language skills easily?

   1. Nature and nurture

   2. Continuity and discontinuity

   3. Quantitative and qualitative

   4. Critical periods and plasticity

4. Which of the following is not an incremental model?

   1. Psychosocial

   2. Bandura’s Social Learning

   3. Skinner’s Behavioral model

5. Stage models are more closely associated which type of change?

   1. Quantitative

   2. Qualitative

Name

Quiz 2

1. The _________  refers to the way in which genes are expressed Phenotype -- observable characteristics of an organism produced by the organism's genotype interacting with the environment.

   1. Genotype

   2. Meiosis

   3. Phenotype

   4. Environment

2. The epigenetic model emphasis which of the following?

   1. Environmental influences

   2. Behavior influences

   3. Genetic activity

   4. Coaction of multiple influences

3. A teratogen is a substance or agent that affects a child

   1. When the child consumes the substance during early childhood

   2. When taken or absorbed by the mother during pregnancy

   3. through receiving immunizations

   4. by ensuring that the child is strong and healthy

4. The surgeon general has stated that it is safe to drink 1 glass of wine during pregnancy. 

   1. True

   2. False

5. This chapter focused primarily on

   1. Brain development

   2. Genetics and in-utero environment

   3. Cognitive development

   4. Early childhood

Here’s an additional question related to this chapter

6. A teenager enjoys participating in a sport, and chooses to join a sports team and his/her school.  This is an example of which type of genetic influence

   1. Passive

   2. Evocative

   3. Active

Name________________

Quiz 3

1.      A kitten whose eyes are covered during the first months of its life loses the ability to see clearly in ways that would have been possible without the loss of early visual stimulation. This effect remains despite later attempts to remediate the loss. This is an example of which of the following?

a.                   behavior genetics

b.                  critical period

c.                   plasticity

d.                  visual demand

2.      At least in Piaget’s earlier writings, his theory of cognitive development was primarily a  ____________ model of development?

a.                   Incremental

b.                  Multidimensional

c.                   Stage

d.                  Random

3.      Carla, a 10-month-old infant, is seated in a playpen, playing with her toys.  She sees her caregiver enter the room carrying a bottle of milk for another child in the day care center. Carla watches the caregiver give the bottle to the other child.  Carla extends her hands toward the bottle, making noises that indicate she wants one as well. Her caregiver notices this, picks Carla up, and quickly prepares a bottle for her. In this example, Carla is demonstrating

a.                   knowledge of inferred intention.

b.                  preoperational thinking.

c.                   decentration.

d.                  means-end behavior.

4.      When considering the various cognitive developments, Piaget and others have stated that various areas of cognition can development at different rates.  In this sense, development is referred to as _____________

a.                   Domain specific

b.                  General

c.                   Adaptive

d.                  Habituating

5.      ______________  refers to the ability to make the sounds that are important in the learning of language:

a.                   Phonology

b.                  Syntax

c.                   Semantics

d.                  Pragmatics

Name________________

Quiz 4

1. Which of the following is not considered a universal basic emotion:

   1. Fear

   2. Guilt

   3. Happiness

   4. Anger

2. Suzie, an infant, is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable. Her temperament is said to be

   1. difficult.

   2. easy.

   3. slow-to-warm up.

   4. resilient.

3. The quality of a children’s attachments has been found to affect 

   1. what children expect social interactions to be like.

   2. whether children remember positive or negative aspects of events better.

   3. children’s concepts of themselves.

   4. all of the above.

4. Which of the following parenting styles is characterized by a parent being responsive to their child and not being demanding (low expectation)?

   1. Authoritative

   2. Authoritarian

   3. Permissive

   4. Neglecting/uninvolved

5. Which of the following is a method of control that includes reasoning with a child and helping them understand the effects of their behavior on others?

   1. Corporal Punishment

   2. Withdrawal of Love

   3. Power Assertion

   4. Induction

Name________________

Quiz 5

1. During middle childhood (around 6-12) years old, Piaget theorized that people are in which stage of cognitive development?

   1. Sensorimotor

   2. Formal Operational

   3. Concrete Operational

   4. Pre-Operational

2. _______________ memory holds information we are actively thinking about at the moment.  It has a limited capacity and a time frame of about 15-30 seconds.

   1. Working

   2. Long-Term

   3. Semantic

   4. Sensory

3. ______________ is the idea that most people are motivated to maintain moderately positive beliefs about themselves.

   1. Social comparison

   2. Downward social comparison

   3. Conscience

   4. Self-enhancing bias

4. Kohlberg is known for his theory of __________  development.

   1. Moral

   2. Social

   3. Cognitive

   4. Gender

5. _______________ can be thought of as “feeling with” another person, not to be confused with ____________ which refers to “feeling for” another person.

   1. Altruism; hedonism

   2. Sympathy; empathy

   3. Empathy; sympathy

   4. Morality of caring; morality of justice

Name________________

Quiz 6

1. Which of the following terms refers to the idea that boys grow into men, and girls grow into women?

   1. Gender identity

   2. Gender stability

   3. Gender constancy

   4. Gender dysphoria

Mid-Term Study Guide. 

            This is not a comprehensive exhaustive list of everything that is on the mid-term, however, it provides you with some areas of focus.  If you have a good understand of all of these areas, you will be well prepared for the exam.  I would also recommend using the quizzes as guides.  The test is almost entirely multiple choice (about 60 items).  There is also a matching section (15 items).

• Theories (the greatest number of test items relate to chapter 1.  Additionally, later chapters are all informed by the basics of chapter 1.  Be sure you know these theories and concepts well.)

  • Stage, Incremental, etc.

    • Know how these different categories of models differ

  • Specific theories

    • Know specifics of the models, for example:

      • Know the order of the stages

      • Know the difference between classical and operant conditioning

      • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING--change in behavior takes place when a neutral event or stimulus is associated with a stimulus that causes an automatic response.  As a result the neutral stimulus causes the person to make the same automatic response in the future.

      • OPERANT CONDITIONING--The process by which a person learns to produce a formerly random or accidental behavior or operant in response to a cue because the behavior was previously reinforced in that situation.

    • Be able to match major theorists with their theory (ie. Freud=psychosexual)

  • Major questions in development

    • Qualitative vs. qualitative, plasticity, etc.

  • When does development stop?

• Genetics and in-utero environment

  • Phenotype -- observable characteristics of an organism produced by the organism's genotype interacting with the environment.

  Genotype -- genetic constitution of an organism.

  • Carrier -- an individual heterozygous for a single recessive gene.

  • What is coaction of genes?  Interaction with environment.

  SHIFTING FOCUS TO THE COACTION OF GENES AND ENVIRONMENT

  Unexpected Sources of Environmental Effects

  The Case for Coaction

  The Epigenetic Model: A Multidimensional Perspective

  • How do the behaviors/health of mother influence the health of infant

• Neuro

  • How do neurons communicate with each other? Sending and receiving electrochemical messages.  HOW DO NEURONS COMMUNICATE WITH EACH OTHER?  The electrical impulse carries.  The dendryte tells the cell body to act or not act.  The electrical signal is controlled by chemicals.  The gap is the synapse.

  • (synapses, neurotransmitters)

    Neurotransmitters--Chemical that are directly related to the activity of neurons. Excite or inhibit neuron firing.

  • Understand experience-expectant and experience-dependent growth

  • Experience-expectant. Overproduction to pruning. Cat experiment.

    Experience dependent.  No production without stimulus. Multiple languages.  Learning to juggle.

  • Understand the concept of pruning:  After birth, the brain's axons and dendrites grow and reproduce at a rapid pace, and many synapses form; however, starting at around the first birthday, many neurons die off and unnecessary synapses disappear through:
    Neural pruning

  • Different parts grow at different times and at different rates Growth of the human brain and skull slows down at about 2.5 years old

• Early childhood

  • How do we study cognitive abilities in children who can’t talk?

    • Understand the habituation paradigm--baby's tendency to orient to new stimulation and to habituation to repeated or old stimulation.  Grows bored.

    •  Preferential looking paradigms--to investigate the language ability of very young children, even children who are not yet able to speak or to understand complex instructions.  The IPL paradigm just requires the child to listen to sentences and watch TV screens. The paradigm is based on the fact that children, and, in fact, adults too, tend to look at scenes corresponding to sentences that they hear.

  • What is sensorimotor and preoperational thought?

  • Know things like: object permanence, means-end behavior

  • Object permanence.

    Impossible event test--somehow baby understands things that aren't supposed to happen.

    First 6 months can use a baby sitter because don't understand separation.

    Remembering is made up of two things:  recognition and recall.

    Intentionality at about 9 months  means-end behavior (9 months or less)  I know when I get what I want.

    Agency--the ability to act without an external trigger.

    Intention--internal mental state, such as a plan or desire.

    theory of mind--Understanding others' intentions (other person reaching for something)

    Preoperational stage--begin to use symbols.

    In beginning, we have centration--thought tends to be focused on one salient feature at time.

    Decentration--taking multiple pieces at the same time.

    Preoperational egocentrism

    False belief task  (where is the candy?) 

    --Most childre attribute the same knowledge to others that they have themselves (p. 89)

     

  • Language development.  Phonology, semantics, etc.  when do these developments usually happen?

  • Phonology --making sounds

    very early after birth, infants prefer language from their mother's native tongue.  Recognize mother's voice at age 3.

    Babbling (6 mos)

    Voicing

    By age 3, most children can make themselves understood to familiar listeners, nonfamily members understand by around 4

    You have to hear sounds before 2 to speak like a native speaker

    Preferential--should know about that.

    Semantics--study of meaning of words

     

  • Attachment theory

  • Temperament

  • Parenting styles

  • Self-Concept

• Middle Childhood

  • Friendships (Selman) 

    • Friendships require balancing intimacy and autonomy

  • Social comparisons: down social comparison, self-enhancing bias, etc.

  • Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Gender

  • What are some differences in gender development

  • Know gender identity, gender constancy, gender stability and when

  • What influences gender identity and gender expression

  • Transgender

TEST REVIEW

  If an infant's needs for nourishment, stimulation, affection, and attention are not met during this stage from 0-1 year-old, infants will fail to establish basic trust or to feel valuable, carrying "mistrust" with them into the next stage of development. Mistrust in others and self will make it more difficult to successfully achieve a sense of autonomy.

  If new events are experienced that are similar to the events within the original context, learned behavior may be extended through generalization.

  It is the characteristic of stage model that development is seen in stages in which each stage is characterized by certain characteristics and as the person moves to the next stage the common characteristics change.

  The woman has decided that money is not as fulfilling as raising her children and helping others—her personal identity and interpersonal attitudes have evolved into a different set of priorities.

7. The reflective practitioner does all of the following except:  

  The reflective practitioner uses a variety of sources such as professional and personal experience, as well as background knowledge, in addition to technical theory and applications when determining how to best approach a problem.

8. Classical and operant conditioning are examples of which type of developmental theory:  

  Classical and operant conditioning are part of social learning theories, where a change in behavior takes place because environmental events are paired with certain behaviors. The changes are narrow in scope (incremental) compared to stage theories and not as broad as multidimensional models.

9. Which of the following is NOT considered a stage model:  

  Bronfenbrenner's is a multidimensional model, not a stage model.

10. You are doing a demonstration with Stella, who is three years old. You have two equal-sized glasses, filled to the top with the same volume of water. You ask her whether there is more water in one glass than the other, or the same, and she responds, "The same." Now, you pour the entire contents of one of these glasses into a tall, thin glass, and the entire contents of the other into a short, but very wide, glass. You ask her which glass contains more water, and she points to the tall glass. Which of Piaget's cognitive stages of development is Stella in?  

  Stella does not understand the logic of the volume of the water being preserved no matter what vessel contains it. Instead, she is focused on one salient piece of information, the height of the water in the glass. To her, the taller glass contains more water because its level is higher.

11.Monica is often quiet around the dinner table. Her parents have learned that she "just wants to be left alone." However, when Monica is troubled and wants to be supported, her parents fail to recognize her need to talk and Monica becomes more inverted. Monica's shyness is a(n):  

  Although shyness may be inherited, Monica's tendency to be shy elicits a predictable response from her parents, which reinforces her shyness.

12.Which of the following is characteristic of the stage model of development?  

  It is the characteristic of stage models that development as seen in stages in which each stage is characterized by certain characteristics and as the person moves to the next stage the common characteristics change. The first and fourth choices are characteristic of the multidimensional model and the second choice is characteristic of the incremental model.

13. Ella is influenced by a movie she sees in which the main character skips school and does not get caught. She thinks this seems like a fun idea and convinces her friend Sandra to skip school with her. As a result, both girls are given detentions and grounded by their parents. Sandra no longer trusts Ella and decides to stop associating with her. Bronfenbrenner might argue that what has taken place here illustrates the concept of __________.  

  This example illustrates the concept of proximal processes because Ella and Sandra are both influencing and being influenced by their immediate environments.

14.The pleasure principle drives which of Freud's personality aspects?  

  The id is irrational, driven by the pleasure principle, that is, by the pursuit of gratification.

15. Which of the following does NOT illustrate social learning theory?  

  This is an example of operant conditioning, because Angie's own behavior is being reinforced. In social learning theory, a subject learns a new behavior through observing a model's behavior.

CHAPTER 3
Multiple Choice Questions


This activity contains 15 questions.

Question 1

1
Open Hint for Question 1 in a new window Children begin to learn the "phonology" of their native language by what age:

Before birth
At birth
3-6 months
6-9 months
Approx. 1 year

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window Lily and her mother sit on the floor and play with a doll together. The phone rings and Lily's mother jumps up to answer it. In doing so, she accidentally covers the doll with Lily's blanket which is also on the floor. In the 15 seconds that Lily is sitting on the floor by herself, she has difficulty figuring out where the doll has gone and subsequently begins to cry. Which concept has Lily not yet developmentally obtained?

Recall
Object permanence
Observational learning
Recognition

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window Piaget believed that children's poor perspective-talking skills reflected which of the following:

Fragile X syndrome
Psychosocial crisis
Preoperational egocentrisms
None of these

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window Jennifer suffered severe head trauma to her forebrain during a car accident. After this accident, she was unable to process new memory. Jennifer was able to remember events prior to the accident. However, she was unable to remember events following the accident. The specific brain structure that was most likely damaged by the accident is:

Limbic System
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Hypothalamus

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window The life-span of a functioning neuron is:

12 hours
12 months
2 years
The entire life of the individual

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window After birth, the brain's axons and dendrites grow and reproduce at a rapid pace, and many synapses form; however, starting at around the first birthday, many neurons die off and unnecessary synapses disappear through:

Myelination
Synaptogenesis
Neural pruning
Object permanence

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window Neurons communicate by:

Sending and receiving messages through direct connections
Sending and receiving electrochemical messages
Through the blood-nerve barrier
The first and second choices

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window Justin is a four month-old infant. He has developed sucking schema by sucking the bottle. Now whatever comes in his hand, whether it is a toy or a pacifier or cloth, he tries to use the same sucking schema. This is an example of:

Assimilation
Accommodation
Both assimilation and accommodation
None of these

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window Piaget reported that when babies are around 8 to 12 months old, they will divert their attention from a goal, such as grabbing an object, in order to produce another action that will help achieve the goal. This process is referred to as:

Intention
Using symbols
Means-end behavior
Observational learning

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window Baby Mandy is playing with a blue ball. Mom takes the ball and places it under Mandy's purple blanket which is next to where Mandy is sitting. Mandy then successfully retrieves the ball from under the blanket to continue playing with it. Mandy has displayed:

Orienting response
Deferred imitation
Representational thought
Memory recall

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window In the major milestones in motor development, a child is able to run, jump, and climb at:

4 months
7 months
12 months
2-3 years

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window Babies begin babbling, repeating consonant-vowel-consonant combinations, such as "dadada," at about age ______, and limit their babbling to sounds permissible in their native language by about age _______.

1 month; 3 months
3 months; 6 months
6 months; 9 months
9 months; 12 months

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window At what age do children begin to intentionally communicate with others?

At birth
At about 8-12 months
At about 18-24 months
When they begin speaking

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window According to Vygotsky, tools and signs are anything that people use to help them think and learn. The most important tool for Vygotsky was:

Writing things down
Observation
Language
Smelling

End of Question 14


Question 15

15
Open Hint for Question 15 in a new window Scaffolding:

Serves as a temporary prop until the child has mastered a task
Allows more advanced thinkers or more capable members of a culture to help novice learners
Is learning that occurs when a more cognitively advanced individual guides a learner with prompts, cues, and other supports
All of theseCHAPTER 4
Multiple Choice Questions


This activity contains 15 questions.

Question 1

1
Open Hint for Question 1 in a new window A baby is playing with some blocks while his mother and a stranger watch. When his mother gets up to leave the room, he does not seem to be distressed and continues playing. When the mother returns and calls to him, he turns his head away from the direction of her voice and continues playing with his toys. What pattern of attachment does the baby seem to be exhibiting?

Securely attached
Anxious ambivalent – insecurely attached
Avoidant – insecurely attached
Disorganized/disoriented – insecurely attached

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window Which of the following is NOT part of Izard's theory of emotions?

Emotions are the direct product of the underlying neural processes related to each of the emotional expressions
Emotions require cognitive components, such as appraisal or intent, in order to exist
Emotions are based on evolution rather than learning
Emotions emerge in infancy and early childhood in a form that is comparable to the emotions experienced by adults

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window The textbook mentions purposes of attachment. Which of the following is the purpose of the attachment?

Proximity Maintenance
Behavior Inhibition
Secure Base
The first and third choices
The second and third choices

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window Restrictions on visitation of parents to their children during hospitalization (based on concerns about infection and disruptions to medical routines) changed to a policy that allows parents complete access to their children. The change occurred because of research on the emotional effects of mother-child separation during hospitalization conducted by who?

Bronfenbrenner
Erikson
Bowlby
Freud
None of these

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window Bobby, a one year-old, is in a doctor's waiting room with his mother. This is the first time they have been to this particular doctor's office. After a few minutes he begins to play with the toys located in the corner of the room. Bobby's mother leaves the room to go to the restroom and he begins to cry. When she returns he greets her happily and reaches up to be held. According to the text, Bobby is displaying the following type of attachment?

Disorganized/disoriented—insecurely attached
Anxious ambivalent—insecurely attached
Securely attached
Avoidant—insecurely attached
None of these

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window Rebecca, a 1 year-old, hits her head on the corner of a table and begins to cry. According to attachment theorists her mother should:

Ignore her crying to encourage her to be more independent
Wait until she was done crying to soothe her verbally
React promptly and soothe her verbally and/or physically
Tell her to stop crying and act like a big girl

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window In regard to 4 month-old infants Kagan and his colleagues describe as "high reactive," all of the following are true except:

They produce sluggish limb activity
They have high levels of muscle tension
They react irritably to sensory stimulation
New smells or sounds may cause them to cry

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window Kathleen is a three month-old infant who is sitting in her rocking seat smiling and gazing at her mom who is playing peek-a-boo with her. The phone rings and her mom stops focusing on Kathleen to answer the phone. Kathleen starts to wave her arms in a fussy manner to try and get her mom's attention, and failing to do so, looks up at the ceiling fan instead. According to Tronick's observations, what processes are being demonstrated by the infant?

Basic trust and attachment theory
Other-directed and self-directed behaviors
Secure base and safe haven
None of these

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window According to Sroufe, emotional development is the foundation for:

The response to the new psychosocial stimulus
The study of individual adaptation and psychopathology
The infants' behavior as a result of differentiation and integration of the original reflexes
All of these

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window A student named Jack is in the fifth grade and consistently exhibits conduct-disordered behavior. Ten years later, as an adult, he displays a number of disorders including antisocial personality, depression, and substance abuse. According to the text, this is an example of the:

Principle of temperament
Principle of life rhythmicity
Principle of multifinality
None of these

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window What is the relationship between infant reactivity and later shyness?

Low reactivity leads to high shyness
Low reactivity leads to low shyness
High reactivity leads to high shyness
High reactivity leads to low shyness

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window A research technique involves seating an infant facing his mother while the mother interacts in a normal and playful way with her infant. Then, when the mother changes her behavior, by being unresponsive to her infant, the infant will then use facial expressions, movements and verbalizations (other-directed coping behaviors) to get the mother's attention. When the mother then re-engages with the infant, the infant looks away or seems less interested (self-directed coping behaviors). This research technique is called:

The attachment technique
Security experiment
Strange situation test
The "still-face" paradigm

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window Around what age do most infants begin to show separation anxiety accompanied by wariness of strangers?

6 months
12 months
8 months
24 months

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window I was hiking along a wooded path with friends when I caught a glimpse of a small snake in front of me only a moment or two before I would have stepped on it. In fear, I uttered a small scream, my muscles tensed, and I quickly jumped to the other side of my friend, who was next to me and found the entire situation quite amusing. My frightened response is an example of:

My biological preparedness to respond emotionally to at least some harmful stimuli
Low-road emotional processing
High-road emotional processing
The first and second choices
The second and third choices

End of Question 14


Question 15

15
Open Hint for Question 15 in a new window John recently survived a car accident. Doctors determined that he had suffered some damage to the frontal region of his brain during the accident. What syndrome associated with cognitive limitations and emotional problems might be affecting John's functioning since the accident?

Phineas Gage matrix
Limbic System matrix
Frontal Gage matrix
Fragile X Syndrome
CHAPTER 5
Multiple Choice Questions


This activity contains 15 questions.

Question 1

1
Open Hint for Question 1 in a new window Justin is 20 months old and is wearing a hat. He walks next to the full-length mirror in the bedroom, stops, looks into it, and reaches up to touch the hat while watching himself do it in the mirror. What is this developmental benchmark considered?

Self-esteem
Self-actualization
Self-recognition
Pre-self

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window A parent who is high on warmth and low on demandingness toward his or her child would be demonstrating which parenting style?

Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Neglecting/Uninvolved

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window Mr. Samoff is an authoritarian parent. Which of the following is likely to be characteristic of his behavior toward his children?

Highly responsive and highly demanding
Low on responsiveness and highly demanding
Moderately to high on responsiveness and low demanding
Low on responsiveness and low demanding

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window Five year-old Lucy grabs the toy her younger brother is playing with and begins to play with it herself. Her father sees the interaction, pulls Lucy aside, and says to her in a firm tone, "Lucy, it is not nice to take other people's things without asking. Look how upset it made your brother. I would like you to give the toy back." While her father is speaking to her, Lucy is attentive, but not fearful. She gives the toy back to her brother and thinks more about what just took place. Lucy has most likely experienced:

Love withdrawal
Social referencing
Maturity demands
Anxious arousal

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window Self-recognition, early self-control, and early self-esteem (feelings of autonomy) begin to manifest themselves in children at which age?

0-6 months
6-12 months
12-24 months
24-60 months

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window At preschool, the teacher had a plateful of cookies that she explained were for after naptime. Early in the day the teacher left Peggy unattended near the plate. Peggy was not able to stop herself from eating a cookie and afterward felt guilty. What statement is true?

Peggy's self-system includes self-control
Peggy has developed self-conscious emotions
Peggy has developed to a self-monitoring phase of self-self
Peggy is at the pre-self stage of development

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window Billy is a five year-old boy who often goes to school irritable, anxious, and angry. He always follows his teacher's instructions. However, when his teacher is not around he does mischievous things. Billy is often bullied by other students. What type of parenting style does Billy's parents most likely have?

Neglecting/uninvolved
Permissive
Authoritative
Authoritarian

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window In the text, Meltzoff argues that from the regularity and reliability of caregiver-infant interactions babies extract notions of "self invariance" and "other invariance". This can also be called the possession of a "pre-self," which involves all of the following except:

Enjoying self-directed behavior
Likings of permanence of body
Separateness from others
Rhythms of interpersonal connections

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window Expression of frequent negative emotions and lack of behavioral and emotional self-control in toddlers is called:

Normal toddler behavior
Bipolar disorder
Emotional dysregulation
Storming

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window Sometimes Bobby's mommy won't talk to him or look at him for the rest of the day if he does something naughty. Bobby's mommy is using an example of __________ control.

Love-withdrawal
Kindness
Power assertion
Induction

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window Goals that we choose to meet for ourselves because of their personal importance are called:

Valence
Pretensions
Self-concept
Self-esteem

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window Chuck and Jane have always appeared socially isolated, entertaining only family and never initiating interaction with their neighbors, the Smiths. Their son, Theo, who was born a year after the Smiths moved next door, has never interacted with the Smiths nor the Smith's son, who is the same age. Through what process did Theo's behavior develop?

Representations of interactions
Emotional signaling
Social referencing
Self-regulation

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window In preparation for a trip outside, young Bobby grabs his shoes and tries to put them on. Since Bobby is not yet proficient at tying his shoelaces, he struggles and needs help. Instead of helping Bobby learn how to tie his own shoes, his mother walks over, grabs the shoe out of Bobby's hand and says in an irritated manner, "You're taking too long, just let me do it!" With regard to parental responsiveness, the mother's style is:

Child-Centered
Permissive
Parent-Centered
Authoritative

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window In order for "time-out" to be an effective method of discipline for young children, it is essential that it be used with:

Immediacy and Consistency
An intended threat
All negative behaviors
A grain of salt

End of Question 14


Question 15

15
Open Hint for Question 15 in a new window Maria is a client that came to therapy very depressed, feeling unworthy and lonely. She stated that her husband put her down every day for no reason. Some of the goals in her treatment plan are to identify what kind of job she would like to perform and to find educational opportunities that will prepare her for finding a job in the field of her preference. She is working on:

Identifying her I concept
Me concept
Self-esteem
RelationshipsCHAPTER 6
Multiple Choice Questions


This activity contains 16 questions.

Question 1

1
Open Hint for Question 1 in a new window Gary, a four year-old, has been friends with Minh, age five, for several months. Minh often comes over to Gary's house play. On one such occasion, Gary demands that Minh share his brand-new Spider Man action figure with him, and Minh refuses. Gary grabs at the toy, but Minh runs away. Gary tells Minh that he is no longer his friend. Which of Selman's stages of friendship development would Gary fall under?

Stage 0: Undifferentiated/Egocentrism
Stage 1: Differentiated/Subjective
Stage 2: Reciprocal/Self-reflective
Stage 3: Mutual/Third-person
Stage 4: Intimate/In-depth/Societal

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window On the school playground, the noon-supervisor stops a child from playing hide-and-seek because his shoe laces are untied. Still actively searching for his play buddies, and without paying attention to his shoes, he mechanically ties his shoelace in less than 5 seconds. In reference to knowledge, this ability demonstrates what type?

Semantic
Episodic
Declarative
Procedural

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window Development of problem-solving skills in middle childhood involves several kinds of changes. One of these changes occurs because:

Children devise and use an increasing range of strategies as they get older
They usually have more resources, such as domain knowledge and logical thinking skills
They tend to plan better as they get older
All of these

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window Johnny, a 5 year-old, is presented with two piles of 6 buttons. He is asked to count the buttons in each pile to confirm that there is the same amount in both piles, which he does. The presenter then takes one pile of buttons and lines them up in a single row across the table, while keeping the other pile grouped together. She then asks Johnny to tell her which group has more buttons. He responds that the buttons lined up across the table in a row has more. According to Piaget, this is evidence that Johnny is in what developmental stage?

Concrete operational stage
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
All of these

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window In the discussion of whether or not there is a comprehensive way to look at how competent children are in making and sustaining friendships, Selman proposed a framework for friendship making that included the concept of:

Friendship understanding
Friendship skills
Friendship valuing
All of these

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window Cooperative learning environments:

Are as effective for preschoolers as they are for older elementary school children
Seem to be most effective when decision-making is shared
Require active scaffolding by an adult
The second and third choices

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window Advances in technology have revealed that adults and children utilize different skills and hemispheres of the brain to perform mathematical calculations. Children rely most heavily on all of the following except:

Concept formation
Strategy use and reasoning
Previous rote learning
Right-hemisphere capacities

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window Children in Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage should be able to:

Mix complicated chemical formulas
Understand the laws of relativity
Be able to discern that two 8-ounce glasses of different shapes hold the same amount of liquid
Create world peace

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window Formal operational thought refers to the ability to:

Recognize you own subjectivity
Construct logical thoughts about abstract contents
Master fine motor skills
Tell right from wrong
None of these

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window Seven-year-old Marcus is incredibly knowledgeable about outer space. He has an expansive recall memory of outer space facts. However, when asked about the details of the video about tigers he watched at school today, he is unable to remember very much. What is this differentiation in memory due to?

Assimilation
Domain specific knowledge
Elaboration
Sensory memory

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window In terms of human memory, which of the following are involved in declarative knowledge, or knowledge about facts and events?

Semantic knowledge
Episodic knowledge
Procedural knowledge
The first and second choices
The second and third choices

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window In the friendship framework and the spheres of influence, biological predispositions and sociocultural factors are also known as:

Nature and nurture
Interpersonal performance and psychosocial components
Antecedent forces and subsequent effects
The second and third choices

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window In addition to analytic ability, Sternberg includes other abilities to create a more comprehensive picture of intelligence. In applying this theory to learning, which of the following elements would be appropriate to include in a class?

Essay writing
Performing skits
Role-playing
Watching videos
All of these

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window It's Taylor's first day of kindergarten and the teacher has asked him to introduce himself to the class. His response, "My name is Taylor Davis. I am 5 years old. I live in a house. I have a big dog. I have a little sister." What type of knowledge is Taylor exhibiting?

Nondeclarative knowledge
Procedural
Episodic
Semantic

End of Question 14


Question 15

15
Open Hint for Question 15 in a new window Which of the following does NOT contribute to memory improvement with age?

As children grow older, their ability to process information quickly improves
A child's knowledge base expands with age and experience
Children's logical thinking improves with age; since they are better able to understand their experiences they are more likely to remember
Older children are less vulnerable to false memories, because their prior knowledge base allows them to separate reality from suggestions

End of Question 15


Question 16

16
Open Hint for Question 16 in a new window According to Selman, the most mature and effective type of interpersonal orientation is characterized by:

A self-transforming style
An other-transforming style
A balance between self-control and assertiveness
A balance between intimacy and autonomy

1
Open Hint for Question 1 in a new window Kohlberg's conventional level of morality roughly corresponds to which of Piaget's stages of moral development?

Premoral Period
Heteronomous Morality
Autonomous Morality
Universal Morality

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window Which of the following is NOT a stage in Piaget's theory of moral development?

Premoral Stage
Heteronomous Morality
Conventional Level
Autonomous Morality

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window In looking at Kohlberg's views of morality, Gilligan argues that men and women have different "voices" in relation to moral decision making. She labels these differences as the morality of _________ for men and morality of _________ for women.

Justice; Caring
Caring; Justice
Superiority; Inferiority
Giving; Receiving

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window When Mika is asked why he should not hit his brother, he responds, "Because Mommy says so and if I do I will get yelled at." Mika's level of moral development fits with which of Piaget's and/or Kohlberg's stages?

Preconventional Morality
Autonomous Morality
Conventional Morality
The first and second choices

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window Billy knows that when he goes out to dinner he needs to follow certain rules and mind his manners at the table. Such standards are an example of :

Moral rule
Conventional rule
Personal rule
Esteem

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window Motivators for altruism are:

Money and fame
Popularity
Empathy
Sympathy
The third and fourth choices

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window What is being referred to when most people are motivated to maintain moderately positive beliefs about themselves:

Global self-worth
Downward social comparison
Self-enhancing bias
Global self-esteem

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window Beginning at the age of 3, children are able to discern between moral rules, conventional rules, and personal rules. Which of the following is NOT an example of these types of rules?

Elder women are addressed as Auntie
Bedtime is at 7:30
Stealing from others is wrong
Chocolate is good

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window Brandi is a six-year-old first grader. When you ask her about the rules in her classroom, she lists several, including, "Listen to the teacher," "Be respectful to others," and "Keep your hands to yourself." You then ask her why the rules are important, and she responds, "Because teacher says so, and you don't want to get a note sent home to Mom." Which level of moral development is Brandi demonstrating?

Autonomous morality
Social-relational perspective
Concrete, individualist orientation
Punishment and obedience orientation

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window According to the text, our emotional reactions to others are an important source of helping behaviors. Which of the following are sources of helping behaviors?

Self-esteem
Empathy
Sympathy
The second and third choices
All of the above

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window John's classmate accidentally tripped and bumped into him in the lunch line. John immediately assumed that his classmate bumped into him intentionally and then hit his classmate in the face forcefully with a closed fist. What type of bias did John show?

Intentional Attributional Bias
Threat Attributional Bias
Hostile Attributional Bias
None of these

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window Recognizing another's emotional condition and experiencing what they are assumed to be feeling is a description of:

Sympathy
Empathy
Concern
None of these

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window Angie decides to get a divorce. When two of her friends discuss her decision, one of them says, "Although I don't personally agree with Angie's decision, it is ultimately her choice and I will be there to support her." This response demonstrates what level of morality?

Preconventional
Postconventional
Conventional
None of these

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window Travis was very upset when Larry stole some candy, but did not care when Mike put his elbows on the dinner table when he was told not to. What might explain his different reactions?

Stealing is a personal rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a conventional rule
Stealing is a conventional rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a personal rule
Stealing is a moral rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a conventional rule
Stealing is a moral rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a personal rule

End of Question 14









CHAPTER 8
The children in a classroom are asked to name which of their classmates they would like to play with (a positive nomination) and which of their classmates they would not like to play with (a negative nomination). Mabel received a high number of both positive and negative nominations. To which sociometric category would she belong?

Popular
Average
Neglected
Rejected
Controversial

End of Question 1


Question 2

2
Open Hint for Question 2 in a new window Jake, a three year-old boy, feels competition with his father for his mother's attention. He gets jealous when his parents go out on a weekend evening and leave him with a babysitter. According to Freud, what is Jake experiencing?

Penis Envy
Electra Complex
Oedipus Complex
Maternal Complex

End of Question 2


Question 3

3
Open Hint for Question 3 in a new window Justin is aware that he is a boy and his gender is permanent and it will never change even if he wears dresses or ribbons and even if he plays with dolls or changes any behavior or appearance to resemble girls. This is an example of:

Perceptual distinctions between the sexes
Gender stability
Gender constancy
Gender stereotype

End of Question 3


Question 4

4
Open Hint for Question 4 in a new window Sociometry is a:

Classic way of assessing social competence
Measurement of individuals within the peer group
Measurement of rejection only
The first and second choices
None of these

End of Question 4


Question 5

5
Open Hint for Question 5 in a new window Jane, a 4 year-old, has penis envy. She also has sexual desires toward her father and sees her mother as competition. Eventually, she makes peace and identifies with her mother. Freud labeled this the:

Penis Complex
Oedipus Complex
Electra Complex
Sexual Complex
None of these

End of Question 5


Question 6

6
Open Hint for Question 6 in a new window A second step in identity formation in which a child understands that over time one's gender category stays the same is referred to as _________ and occurs by about ________:

Gender Constancy; 2½ years old
Gender Constancy; 3 or 4 years old
Gender Stability; 2 ½ years old
Gender Stability; 3 or 4 years old

End of Question 6


Question 7

7
Open Hint for Question 7 in a new window Which of the following statements regarding the stability of Coie's sociometric categories is NOT true?

The impact of peer group classification is moderately stable, particularly for the broad-band dimensions of acceptance and rejection.
Peer rejection is the most stable of all the broad-band dimensions.
Those in the popular and rejected categories are more likely than others to maintain their status over time.
Those in the neglected and controversial categories tend to maintain their status, but only over short periods of time.

End of Question 7


Question 8

8
Open Hint for Question 8 in a new window A social group that shares activities, behaviors, values, and appearance is considered a:

Family
Clique
Subculture
None of these

End of Question 8


Question 9

9
Open Hint for Question 9 in a new window As Max entered his senior year in high school his once predominantly sports-minded, male social group had become more interest and gender diverse. What can explain this change?

Degrouping
Cliques
Protective Factors
Social Dosage Effect

End of Question 9


Question 10

10
Open Hint for Question 10 in a new window Which of the following statements is correct?

Boys' play in groups is more physical and more aggressive than girls' play.
It is hard to tell the difference between play of boy same-sex groups and girl same-sex groups.
Boys and girls play at the same level of aggression within their same-sex groups.
None of these

End of Question 10


Question 11

11
Open Hint for Question 11 in a new window Three girls are in the yard playing jump rope when one of them says, "I don't want to play jump rope anymore, let's do something else." One of the other girls responds by saying, "How about we play jump rope for just a few more minutes and then we can maybe play with our dolls?" The other girl agrees that they will play jump rope a little longer and then switch to something else. This common way of interaction among girls is known as

Soft play
Collaborative speech
Loss of voice
Domineering discourse
Responsive interplay

End of Question 11


Question 12

12
Open Hint for Question 12 in a new window Peer relationships such as dyads, cliques, and crowds are important because:

They play a role in the development of self-understanding
They provide a sense of acceptance and belonging
Peer relationships are not important
The first and second choices

End of Question 12


Question 13

13
Open Hint for Question 13 in a new window April and Serena are two 5th graders watching tetherball at recess. Their classmates John and Thomas arrive and they all discuss who the best players are. April and Serena stick close together while John and Thomas maintain their distance. This interaction is an example of what?

Edging
Borderwork
Domineering Discourse
Degrouping

End of Question 13


Question 14

14
Open Hint for Question 14 in a new window Lisa and Cassie are part of a clique in their high school. Most of the girls in the group are on the swim team. They tend to dress alike and listen to similar music. Generally, they all go to the same parties or movies on the weekends. The text calls this tendency to share behavior and attitudinal attributes:

Single-Mindedness
Homophily
Heterosexuality
Natural selection

Chapter 9