Glossary for Public Speaking

Abstract word is vague, conceptual, or intangible word and the opposite of concrete word.

Action questions involve the audience through their response.

Active listeners are those who attend to and analyze what they hear.

Ad hominem fallacy is when the speaker attacks the person rather than the idea.

Ad lib speaking takes place when a speaker decides or is forced to give a speech with no time to organize ideas and responds immediately when asked to speak or volunteers an opinion.

Affectation is an artificial way of speaking in an attempt to sound better educated, high society, or pretentious. Speakers should avoid affectation in their speech.

After-dinner speech has the purpose to provide an entertaining or compelling message on a theme.

Agenda Setting Theory suggests that media tell us what is important.

Allness is when people make generalizations about something as if the idea is always the case.

Analogy is a comparison or contrast.

Anecdotes are brief illustrations or stories.

Appreciation listening is for pleasure or enjoyment.

Articulation is the way a consonants are spoken aloud. Careful articulation is useful in public speaking.

Attending is when you decide to listen, pay attention to something in particular.

Attention devices are methods that focus the listener's concentration on one stimulus over all others.

Attention is focusing your mental process on a particular stimulus and deciding to listen. Paying attention is crucial to effective listening.

Attentional materials are attention devices that focus the audience’s interest, and include personal references, humorous stories, illustrations, references to the occasion or setting, rhetorical questions, action questions, unusual or dramatic devices, quotations related to the speech topic, and statements of the theme.

Audience adaptation is changing a speech to fit the characteristics and needs of an audience.

Audience analysis is investigating characteristics of the listeners before presenting a speech and on the behaviors of listeners during a speech, for the purpose of adapting the speech.

Audience analysis is the adaptive process of determining the demographic, attitudinal, and contextual nature of the people to whom you will speak. Audience analysis is the process of considering information about your listeners--demographic information (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) and other factors--so speakers can gear the message to the listeners.

Demographics are characteristics of the audience--such as age, gender, background, ethnicity, and cultural influences.

Audience feedback is the communication reaction or response of the audience, seen in facial expressions, head nodding or shaking, restlessness, and any other cues that give information about the reception of a message.

Audio aids such as CDs, tape recordings, and other sound duplication mechanisms may be the only way to demonstrate a sound point accurately to listeners.

Auditory processors are verbal listeners, who process well from listening to speeches, reading, participating in discussions, participating in conversations, and explaining things to others.

Award presentations are commendations to the recipient. The presentation of an award should include some discussion of the award itself, including the basis for selection, its history, and its significance.

Balance theory suggests that we try to rid ourselves of conflicting beliefs by self-persuasion or persuading others.

Bandwagon fallacy is when the speaker argues that everyone does it, so you should too.

Behavioral objective is the expected outcome of the message, or what you want the audience to do at the end of your speech.

Behavioral objective is the goal of what you want your audience to do after you speak.

Bibliographies give reference information for books, parts of books, films, and magazine articles on a subject.

Biographical sources verify the credentials of authors and give information about people.

Body of a message develops the major points of the speech and any subpoints that pertain to the speaker's central idea.

Bracket is a concentration strategy whereby you decide to set aside mental distractions.

Broad development is when the speaker looks at the topic in a general survey of several ideas.

Bypassing is a misunderstanding caused when people mean the same thing, but use different words. In by passing, the listener doesn’t realize that the words or meaning are misinterpreted.

Case method of organization uses cases or examples or situations as representative of each key idea.

Causal arrangement is the process of showing how one event made another event happen--in other words, how a cause (the first event) led to an effect (the second event).

Central idea explicitly gives the goal of the speech. Central idea is the essence of the message, the response the speaker wants from listeners, or the overall point of the speech.

Ceremonial speech is a speech for a special occasion, such as a funeral, awards ceremony, after-dinner entertainment. Ceremonial speeches are ones for celebration or special occasions.

Ceremonial speeches are speeches for special occasions. Common types of ceremonial speeches include: introductions, welcomes, farewells, award presentations, acceptances, thank-yous, toasts, after-dinner speeches, sermons, prayers, and ceremonial speeches such as tributes, keynotes, inaugurals, and commencement speeches.

Channel preference is a listener's first choice for the way a speech is presented.

Channels in the SMCR model of communication are our senses of sound, sight, smell, touch, and taste by which we send and receive messages.

Chronological arrangement is a time progression (first, second, and third) or sequencing (years or ages). Chronological or time arrangement orders information from a beginning point to an ending one, with all the steps developed in numerical or time sequence. Chronological organization orders speech ideas according to a time line.

Chunking is a memory device in which you group by 7 or less.

Chunking is a memory strategy that takes place when you break down the information in subunits and work with the smaller units one at a time.

Clincher is a device used to make a final appeal to the audience and to ensure that they remember your message.

Coercion is influence that leaves the listener no desirable alternative but to adopt the change of mental or physical behavior the speaker proposes.

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we are psychologically uncomfortable and experience tension when we try to hold two viewpoints.

Cognitive style refers to the unique way that individuals take in and process information, or learn and understand, which is influenced by genetic factors, development during socialization, and cultural influences.

Commemorative speeches are presented to recognize a person or an event.

Communication apprehension is sometimes called "stage fright," and refers to the fears people experience in various communication contexts.

Communication is the active, dynamic process of conveying ideas and meanings from one person to another with the goal of reaching a common understanding.

Communication skills are thinking, reading, writing, researching, speaking, and computer abilities.

Comparative advantage reasoning shows how the proposed method is the most workable.

Comparison-contrast arrangement is when you order information according to the similarities or differences.

Compliance gaining strategies are methods of persuading people to comply with desired behaviors.

Comprehension is a second level of listening, when you try to understand.

comprehension is understanding or awareness.

Computer-based retrieval system allows the researcher to compile information from an online database, such as a bibliography or a set of facts relevant to a specific topic.

Computerized presentation graphics packages such as PowerPoint incorporate word processing, outlining, graphs, tables, logos, clip art, illustrations, photography, video images, audio clips, and Internet connectivity.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) Interaction that is facilitated by electronic technology.

Concrete supporting materials generate attention because they are specific rather than general or abstract means of support.

Concrete word is clear, specific, and tangible and the opposite of an abstract word.

Conflict creates attention because of the strife and confrontation involved.

Connotative meanings go beyond the dictionary definition and include our experiences and emotions.

Context is the situation, environment, timing, occasion, and physical place of a speech, which affect the way communication happens.

Context organizer is a memory device which links the new to the old.

Conversation is private, informal, spontaneous interaction between individuals.

Cough meter is the audience’s verbal and nonverbal cues suggesting inattentiveness, boredom, or hostility.

Critical listening is a high level listening to assess the message in order to decide whether to accept or reject it. Critical listening is a strategy to detect problems in the message cues—reasoning and evidence, for example--or the apparent intention of the speaker, which might make the communication experience defective or even dangerous. Critical listening is appropriate to persuasive messages. The listener should establish a goal of critically evaluating a speaker's message if the speaker's goal is to persuade you to agree, to think, or take an action. The assessment of validity of the message should occur after you have listened to the entire presentation, comprehended, and thought about the message.

Culture is the shared meaning (e.g., communication, language, values, and rituals) that bind the majority of people in a particular group. Cultural groups are formed by common nationality, geographic region, religion, or ethnicity.

Cutaway is a model that shows the inside of an object, which an audience would otherwise have to imagine.

Database is a collection of information, often, abstracts or full-text information from journals, books, and other reference information.

Decoding is the process of making sense of the message by attending to, processing, analyzing, remembering it.

Deductive argument moves from the general to the specific case.

Delivery is the manner of presentation of a speech, which is critical to effective communication.

Delivery is the way a speech is presented.

Denotative meaning or dictionary definition is the generally agreed upon definition.

Desensitization is a process of reducing nervousness through familiarization with a public communication situation by practicing a speech in the place where it will be presented.

Diagram is a figure or plan.

Dictionaries give definitions of terms and synonyms of key words. Many dictionaries specialize in one subject only.

Discrimination is the basic level of listening, when you try to distinguish auditory or visual cues.

Disjunctive argument is an either/or argument in which true alternatives must be established.

Drill and practice is an often used--but relatively ineffective--memory device.

Dyadic communication is an exchange of messages between two people.

Dynamism is the projection of a vigorous, concerned, powerful image.

Either-or fallacy is when the speaker leads you to believe there are only two choices, when in fact there may be many.

Elaboration is the listening stage when you try to understand or make sense of what you attend to.

Electronic presentation graphics are PowerPoint or Web page elements of a presentation.

Encoding is process of putting ideas and information into verbal and nonverbal language, creating a message.

Encoding specificity is the idea that it is easiest to decode in the same way you need to encode.

Encyclopedias give summaries of historical, conceptual, and factual information written by experts, and they give bibliographies (at the ends of articles) of works by important authors.

Enunciation is the way vowels are spoken aloud. Careful enunciation is useful in public speaking.

Ethics are standards of behavior based on moral principles, which are important in public speaking to connect honestly with the audience.

Ethnicity refers to a person's cultural and linguistic heritage or membership in a tribe or nation. Effective public communication is based on sensitively to audience characteristics such as ethnicity.

Eulogy is a tribute presented in recognition of an individual who has died.

Expert is a person who through knowledge or skill in a specific field gains respect for her or his opinions or expertise.

Exposition is necessary background information designed to help listeners understand the material being presented.

Extemporaneous speaking is when a speaker has is organized and well-prepared, but chooses exact word choice while adapting to the audience.

Extroverted listeners like to interact socially and will appreciate a chance to talk with others about speech ideas.

Fact books provide hard information on names, places, and dates in a concise format.

Factual illustrations refer to a real situation or event.

Fallacy of ignoring the issue fails to confront the idea directly and can include claiming that a statement is true because the statement cannot be disproved.

Familiar supporting materials is an attention technique, which refers to ideas or objects about which the audience already has some knowledge.

Farewell speeches are given when a person moves on to another position or retires and as an extension of group's farewell to a departing member.

Faulty analogical reasoning is when they assume that the elements two items or events share are similar in every respect, when they are dissimilar.

Feedback is the verbal and nonverbal communication response of the audience.

Feeling-doers are people who act on information impulsively and respond well to emotional appeals.

Field dependence is a cognitive style in which the individual receives messages in a holistic fashion and learns best through social interaction.

Field independence is a cognitive style in which the individual receives messages serially in an analytical way and learns well through independent study.

First Amendment is the part of the US Constitution that gives Americans the right to free speech and forbids Congress to pass laws abridging the freedom of speech.

First speech is an early speech given in the college course, which is often a speech of introduction.

Forecast is a statement that alerts the audience to ideas that are coming.

Free speech is a fundamental right of individuals to think and say what they believe, even if the words and ideas are unpopular.

Full-text is a complete article, which is available through an online source. Excellent full-text databases include Expanded Academic Index, GenderWatch, MasterFILE Elite, and Social Sciences Full-text.

Goal is the behavioral objective, target, purpose, or expected outcome of the speech.

Grammatical structure is the way words are put together into sentences and ideas.

Group communication is on the continuum of communication: the exchange of meanings among a few individuals or dozens of people.

Group standards are the habits of thinking or the norms of a particular group.

Handbooks give detailed overviews of subjects, usually in single volumes devoted to narrow fields, with articles written by experts, often with bibliographies at the ends of sections.

Hardcopy is a print reproduction or copy, in contrast to an online or electronic copy.

Hasty generalization fallacy is when too few or atypical examples are used to support the conclusion. Hasty generalization is when speaker reaches unwarranted, general conclusions from an insufficient number of instances.

Homiletics or sermonizing is a speech by a member of the clergy or of the congregation.

HTML or hypertext markup language is the code used to communicate via the Internet.

Humor is the quality of being funny or witty and is a useful strategy for gaining and holding the audience's attention.

Humorous stories are attention devices that provide an amusing narrative.

Hypothetical illustrations ask the listener to imagine a situation or a series of events.

Illustrations are detailed stories.

Impromptu speaking is when a speaker has a short period of time to decide what to say.

Indexes locate more information, usually but not always limited to periodicals.

Inductive argument is based on probability--what conclusion is most likely to be expected or believed from the available evidence. In induction, the speaker begins with specfics and moves to a generalization.

Informative briefing is to share data and insights among people with common interests. The briefing usually involves delivery of information to the audience, followed by the exchange of data, ideas, and questions among participants.

Informative purpose statements assert the goal of “to inform,” (enlighten or provide knowledge).

Informative speech is a public message designed primarily to convey knowledge or facts.

Inoculation strategy suggests that listeners can be inhibited from accepting subsequent counter arguments if they are armed with the means to refute them.

Interaction is an exchange of meanings between an audience and a speaker.

Intercultural communication is interaction between people with different cultural experiences, customs, beliefs, values, and expectations.

Interpersonal interaction is communication between two people or within a small group.

Interviewing is formal communication between two people.

Intrapersonal interaction is communication with the self.

Introductory speech is an early speech in the college public speaking course. Often the speech is an introduction of oneself or a keynote speaker.

Introverted or reflective listeners are thinkers who like to process information, contemplate ideas, and they appreciate concrete, specific facts, data, and detailed experimentation.

Issue arrangement is ordering according to essential ideas.

Keynote speech usually serves as the focus of a conference or convention and typically is presented early in the proceedings to function as the "rallying cry" for those involved. Commencement address commemorates old events and new beginnings for members of a graduating class.

Lecture the formal presentation of material to facilitate learning.

Left-brain dominance is a linear preference. This person will probably desire to listen to a lecture rather than be an active participant, require handouts and other written material to review the presentation, and favor serious and logical ideas.

Linear or left-brained processing includes people who may prefer to listen to sequences, process from parts to wholes, hear words, symbols, letters, hear factual information, listen to orderly details, and process messages with structure and predictability.

Listening competence is the ability to listen to a speaker attentively and responsibly by suspending judgment and maintaining a positive attitude to help make the communication a success.

Listening comprehension s what we do when our goal is to understand the speaker's message, usually with the need to recall or to use the information at a later time.

Listening is an involved reception process--a complex cognitive process--that uses multiple aspects of your brain and your skills. Listening is the process of recognizing, hearing, and responding to stimuli.

Logical organization is characteristic of a speech that follows a structured pattern of reasoning.

Main ideas are the essential concepts or points of a message. Most audiences are able to grasp and remember 3 to 5 main ideas in a speech, so that is a typical structure in public presentations.

Manuscript mode is when you write out a speech word-for-word in manuscript form that will be read in the speech.

Mass communication on the continuum of communication is the most public speaking, involving very large groups of people, even millions.

Memorized mode is when you write out a speech word-for-word in manuscript form then commit the speech to memory.

Message is the encoded idea or understanding that the speaker shares with the audience.

Method of loci is a memory device in which you visualize something to remember it.

Method of organization is the arrangement of ideas and support in the speech.

Mind map is a visual note taking process. Mind mapping uses a visual alternative to organizing, planning, and presenting a speech. Storyboards are another alternative.

Mnemonic device is when you use initials to spell out a word of sentence to help memory.

Mnemonic devices are memory strategies which combine the first letter of a series of words in order to allow you to remember the idea.

Mockup is a model constructed in sections. It is typically used to show how an object is put together.

Models are helpful concrete representations of abstract concepts or processes, such as transmission or exchange models of communication.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence is one of the most common modes used to organize a persuasive message, which includes five steps: 1. Attention, 2. Need, 3. Satisfaction, 4. Visualization, 5. Action.

Narrow development is when the speaker looks at a single issue in great detail.

New media are computer-based technologies, such as the Internet, PowerPoint, and telecommunications devices.

Noise Any distraction during a communication situation, such as a sound, a thought, a visual distraction, or other influences that break the listener’s focus.

Nonprint materials include speech information sources such as CD’s, films, video, charts, and models, as well as interviews or correspondence

Nonsequitor fallacy is when you move from one idea to an unrelated idea while acting as if the two are somehow relevant to each other.

Nonverbal means nonword communication, and includes elements such as vocal pitch, speaking rate, gestures, eye contact, and clothing.

Norms are the general expectations of rules of standard pronunciation.

Novelty is the attention device that uses the unique or surprising.

Online means using electronic technology. Annual Reviews provide recent overviews of significant developments in a subject field and bibliographic information.

Oral citation or oral footnote indicates the source of the information included in a speech.

Oral communication is the biological act of communicating symbols through voice.

Oratory is eloquent public speaking.

Orienting material, the second part of an introduction, is designed to give the audience the background necessary to understand the basic material of the speech.

Outlining etiquette is the use of generally accepted rules in outline preparation.

Participants are the persons engaged in the communication event--the speaker and the members of the audience.

Pathos is the emotional attitude about the speaker, which can be prompted by language use.

Pause is a temporary stop or hesitation.

Personal inventory is a look at yourself so you can determine effective speech topics, purpose, and development.

Personal references are attention devices that give the specific relationship of the speaker to the purpose, occasion, audience, or content of the speech.

Persuasive purpose statements assert the goal of “to persuade," argue, change, or motivate.

Persuasive speech is a public presentation designed primarily to influence, which includes to motivate, to change attitudes, and to change behavior.

Pitch is the tone of sounds, ranging from high (or shrill) tones of soprano to low (or deep) tones of bass.

Plagiarism is the unethical and often illegal use of another’s work as your own.

Polarization takes place as the individual members become an audience and begin to center their attention on the speaker and the message

Post-speech analysis is investigation after the speech concludes.

Powerful language is clear, direct, with no hedges ot hesitation, and assertive and confident.

PowerPoint is a software program for creating electronic slide shows for public presentations.

Practice involves saying a speech aloud to yourself or others, essential to a smooth and confident delivery.

Prayers--statements of faith and concern addressed to the congregation's higher power.

Primacy centers on the idea that the listeners need to hear the most important idea first.

Primary sources of information are sources of information that represent the original reports of the observations or research.

Prior analysis is preparation that you do before you give the speech.

Problem-solution arrangement when a speaker attempts to identify what is wrong and to determine how to cure the problem or make a recommendation for its cure. Problem-solution organization is characteristic of a persuasive speech that presents a problem to an audience and then offers a solution to the problem.

Process analysis is watching the audience for feedback and paying attention to the reactions after the speech.

Pronunciation is the way a word is spoken aloud.

Psychographics are audience characteristics that include attitudes, such as positive or negative predispositions toward the speaker, the speech, and the occasion)

Public involves a number of people in an open, formal, communal, business, or not private context.

Public listening is the process of hearing and analyzing communication in public contexts.

Public presentations is on the continuum of communication: communications made to audiences in public rather than private contexts.

Public speaking is another term for oratory, emphasizing two-way interaction between the speaker and the audience. Public speaking is oral communication with a small, medium, or large group of people.

Purpose is what the communicator is trying to accomplish (e.g., answer a question, change a point of view, influence others to take an action).

Purpose of the persuasive process is to influence.

Purpose statement is the way the speaker writes out the subject and intention, and develops the criteria by which they will evaluate material that may be included in the speech.

Quality is the characteristic tone of a speaking voice, and animation has to do with the liveliness of the presentation.

Question-and-answer session is an interactive part at the end of a speech.

Random sampling is an examination technique, which allow researchers to study less than the entire population.

Receiver is the recipient of a message or listener.

Recency is the idea that the listeners need to hear the most important idea at the end of a message for the strongest impact.

Red flags are words that generate strong emotions, and thus prompt an automatic response from the listener.

Red herring fallacy is when the speaker throws out an irrelevant issue as a distraction.

Refereed journals are scholarly publications that are usually the most reliable source of information. The peer-reviewed articles considered for publication typically are primary sources because they are written by the scholars who conducted the original research projects.

Rehearsal is a memory strategy used to store information in the long term memory through which you repeat it, rehearse it over and over until it can be brought back into consciousness.

Remembering is the process of retaining the information, impression, and experience that you processed.

Restatement is a summarization of a segment of the presentation.

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion through words effectively in speaking or writing, but today the term sometimes is used to mean empty or insincere speech ("empty rhetoric).

Rhetorical question is a question the speaker does not expect the audience to answer directly.

Rhetorographics are influences surrounding the speech, such as the setting, including the situational and environmental aspects of the speech event.

Right-brain dominance is preference for holistic thinking. This person tends to desire examples rather than technical explanations, needs word pictures to remember ideas, likes to explore ideas individually rather than be lectured to, prefers metaphors and analogies to facts, likes humor, and wants to know how information can be specifically useful or applied. Right-brained--also called holistic, global, or field dependent--listeners are more comfortable with big-picture ideas, symbols, and new concepts.

See-blame-cure-cost method is a four-step organizing technique, (a) the evil or problem that exists is examined (see), (b) what has caused the problem is determined (blame), (c) solutions are investigated (cure), and (d) the most practical solution is selected (cost).

Setting consists of the place, time, and emotional climate of the speech. The setting may also be referred to as the environment.

Social facilitation is the audience’s part of the experience where they lose some of their individual identity and pick up on reactions and responses from other listeners in that audience.

Sound bite society is our expectation for brevity, where an entire message must be conveyed metaphorically in an 8-second phrase.

Source is the speaker or sender of a message.

Spatial arrangement is based on position or geographical basis (for example, from east to west, from top to bottom, or from the inside out). Spatial arrangement is when a speaker sets a point of reference at some specific location and then proceeds to give information starting from the established reference point.

Speaker credibility is the believability, reputation, prestige, and authority of a speaker.

Speaking traditions are distinctive culture-based styles of oral communication that are passed down from generation to generation.

Specific instances are condensed examples that are used to clarify or to provide a point.

Speech communication The sending of messages using oral communication.

Speech of acceptance normally follows an award presentation, an election victory, or a success.

Speech of actuation should move the members of the audience to take the desired action that the speaker has proposed: buy the product, sign the petition, go on strike, or adopt the plan presented.

Speech of introduction identifies and describes a person being presented to the audience, often as a prelude to the person giving a speech to that audience.

Speech of thank-you is an appreciative acknowledgment of services or aid given.

Speech of welcome provides greetings to a visitor to an organization, to new members, or to make remarks on joining a group.

Speeches about concepts examine theories, beliefs, ideas, philosophies, or schools of thought.

Speeches about events inform the audience about something that has happened, is happening, or is expected to happen.

Speeches about objects describe a particular thing in detail. The object may be a person, a place, an animal, a structure, a machine--anything that can be touched or observed. The speaker first identifies the object, and then discusses its specific attributes. Speeches about processes instruct the audience about how something works, is made, or is done so that the listeners can then apply the knowledge themselves. The end purpose may be either to gain understanding of the process or to be able to do something. >

Split page note taking reinforces listening through a process of putting key ideas on the left side of the page and support on the right side of the page.

Statement of declaration is a sentence that proposes the major contentions that segment the speech.

Statistical Sources provide numerical support and documentation of your ideas.

Statistical surveying is an investigative technique, which provides some degree of assurance that the resulting information will be correct

Statistics are numbers or mathematical data used to clarify or prove speech ideas.

Stereotyping is simply a way of categorizing information, but the problem is similar to allness, in that we may forget that each individual is different and generalizations can be inappropriate in specific cases.

Straw man (woman) fallacy is when the speaker puts up a false issue and refutes it.

Summary of a speech restates the main points of the body of the speech.

Supplementary presentational aids are visual, audio, and audiovisual support for a speech.

Supporting materials are examples, anecdotes, stories, statistics, charts, models, graphs, and other elements that support, explain, or prove the main ideas of a presentation.

Supporting materials are terms, examples, statistics, and other methods used to provide and clarify the speaker's message.

Supportive language is tentative, uses familiar pronouns, uses hedges and qualifiers, and is open-minded

Suspense creates attention because the speaker develops expectation and uncertainty in the audience.

Tactile-kinesthetic listeners process well when information appeals to their sense of touch or doing something.

Technical reports are concise, clear statements explaining a process, detailing a technique, or discussing new elements either to people within a business or industry or to people outside it.

Testimony is a direct quotation (an actual statement) or a paraphrase (a reworded idea) from an authority.

Theory of field-related standards suggests that not all people reach conclusions in the same way and thus people react differently to the same evidence or appeals.

Therapeutic listening asks the listener to serve as a sounding board, allowing the speaker to express emotions or talk through problems.

Therapeutic listening is the third level, which is when you provide a sounding board for a friend, colleague, or family member who has a problem they need to vent.

Toast is a recognition of or tribute to a person or a group, in which a short speech is given and a celebratory liquid is sipped.

Topic is the subject or area to be discussed in the speech.

Topical arrangement explains an idea in terms of its component parts.

Transactional model of communication is a representation of simultaneous sending and receiving of messages in the communication process. Both speaker and listener are encoding and decoding messages at the same time. Just as the speaker is encoding and sending the speech, she or he is receiving and decoding feedback from the listeners; likewise, as the listeners receive the speaker's message, they encode and send their feedback.

Transitions are bridges that provide the listener with a connection between the points.

Transmission model of communication is an outdated representation of communication as a one-way process of conveying meanings to an audience. Now we consider the process to be two-way interactive or transactional

Tributes should stress the reasons the recipient is being honored and point out the recipient's accomplishments.

Unfolding method of organization gradually makes known the ideas to be presented.

Unusual or dramatic devices arouse the attention of the audience because of their unexpectedness.

Verbal style is how a speaker presents the words of a speech.

Video aids such as films, DVDs, and videotapes, slide shows depend on visual prepresentations to convey messages.

Visual aids appeal to our sense of sight, and include a poster board, handouts, real objects, models, photographs, pictures, diagrams, and charts.

Visual listeners process best from what they see (photos, diagrams, charts, time lines, films, demonstrations, or color coding for organization).

Visualization is a process of picturing oneself in a situation or creating images that predict future events, used as a way to prepare for a speech and reduce nervousness.

Visualizations allow the audience to see a relationship between things by creating pictures or images in the mind's eye of the listener.

Vivid supporting materials generate attention because they are distinct, graphic, lively, and colorful

Volume is the fullness or power of the voice sound, ranging from loud to soft, and rate is the speed at which words are spoken.

Watcher-thinkers are people who need to ponder decisions and respond best to facts and logical appeals.