Notes are based on writings and information provided by Dr. Warren Wheelock, Professor, University of Missouri - Kansas City, 2006.

Assignment versus Referral Concept.  Assignment -- decision made by someone other than reading teacher.  Referral is when the reading teacher makes decision.  Referral is preferred over assignment.  The assignment approach will have little or no positive effect on most of the disabled readers; the SRT quickly becomes overburdened and eventually frustrated.  And most serious of all, the SRT will not be able to help the classroom teachers provide an effective developmental classroom program and, thus, PREVENT many reading problems.  Mild correctives should be helped in groups of 5-8 and correctives in groups of 3-5 and remedial 1 on 1.  May take 10-20 weeks to a year.  3/4 of SRT time should be with students and 1/4 time consultant to teachers.  All children with reading problems will not be in the program at the same time.

Auditory discrimination - how well can hear difference between sounds.  Not inherited, but learned and can be taught.  Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test.  40 pairs indicate "same" or different."

Blend--Two consonants, where all of the consonants are heard. 

Consonants.  hw is supposed to be sound for wh. 

Digraph is a combination of two letters that make a single sound.  Digraph only relates to consonants. th is a consonant cluster, usually 2 consonants, which forma a new sound.  the  wh(which) ch (chair) sh (shoe) th (the) ng (sewing). You cannot split digraphs and blends.

Diphthong is made with two vowels.  ou ow oi oy  Diph tho ng has 3 digraphs.  ou or ow house, owl, same sound.  oi, oy, toil, boil, toy.  oysters will spoil if you boil them in oil. 

Dyslexia is defined by person defining it.  Most often:  Dyslexia is an associative learning disorder.  Can't prevent because don't know cause.  Can't recognize first couple of years.  If mother thinks there's something wrong, there's something wrong.  Listen!

Flexible grouping.  No more high-average-low groups.  Flexible grouping makes more sense.  Change who is in group according to tasks.

GA General American speech.  Standard speech for the US.

Grapheme:  Any letter of alphabet is a grapheme  (44 phonemes, 26 graphemes).  Printed symbols (graphemes).

IQ Intelligence relates to comprehension, not decoding.  A child with superior intelligence may be dyslexic, so can't decode.  Child learning to read is NOT based on IQ.  Best indicator of a child's IQ below the age of 5 is the mother's IQ.  Ignore the full scale IQ score, which is the least reliable because a reading problem will pull the score down.  Schools like to look at the full scale score.

IRI:  Instructional Reading Inventory

Metacognition is thinking about one's thinking, including becoming aware of one’s background knowledge, assumptions.

Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning.  s changes from singular to plural.  A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.

Oral Language Development  1.  Phonology - Deals with the sounds of the language.  2.  Vocabulary - Words of the language.  3.  Grammar - How words go together to make sentences.  Also known as syntax. 4.  Discourse - How sentences are put together to tell a story or explain something. 5.  Pragmatics - Rule of how to use the language, putting other things above - together. 6.  Developing all these aspects is a major undertaking for a child's first years.

Phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language.  Spoken sounds (phonemes).  http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhoneme.htm

Reading is an associative learning process.  Reading is the ability to read connected print (decoding) fluently and with understanding (comprehension).  The alphabet is a code.  There are graphemes or letters (26) and sounds or sound unit or phonemes (44).  Both phonemes and graphemes are used in reading.  1.  Research supports conflict views.  2.  There is not one best way to teach all children to read.  3.  Effective instruction is executed by effective teachers.  It's the teacher that makes the difference.  Great material with poor teacher doesn't work.  Weak material with great teacher works!  4.  Teaching reading is a decision-making process.  Who makes the decisions -  the teacher.  Teacher -- you know more than anyone else --parents, principal, anyone because you see those kids every day.  No one else spends as much educational time so you should make the decisions.

Reading Readiness:  The teachable moment.  You can't learn to read until you're ready; knowing letters, auditory discrimination, directionality, know letters make words, visual discrimination.  Reading readiness is when the student knows the letters of the alphabet, direction orientation, visual and auditory discrimination.  Formal reading instruction is when the student attaches meaning.  This letter t has this sound.

Sight word - learn by sight because of frequency so do not decode (e.g., the)

SRT:  Special Reading Teacher

Structure syllable - 3 most common patterns. .  syllabic patterns begin with  1.  vccv sister - digraphs don't split father (not fat her)  2.  v/cv paper  3.  v/cv Word ends in consonant plus le, uncle, buckle, rifle.  When ends in le include previous consonant.  prefix or suffix modify the meaning of the root word.  lucky unlucky, rigid rigidly,  ly suffix tells how.  Teach children the correct word. vcv tirade  T is a consistent sound--regular consonant (same with r and d)  i, if syllable ends in vowel, is open syllable or long.  long a because of final e, magic e rule, which is silent.  You want this to be automatic.  Tirade  The ability to read connected print.

Verbalism - The use of a word without understanding what the word means.  Write out the Pledge of Allegiance.  I led the pigeons to the flag.  Verbalism is use of a word without understanding its meaning.  I led the pigeons to the flag instead of I pledge allegiance to the flag (verbalism).  Lead us not into Penn station instead of Lead of not into temptation (verbalism).

Vowel:  u or aw - generally thought to be the same sound author awkward.  long and short oo proof and look.  Vowel digraphs is two vowels go walking usually long sound of first vowel.  a and l and a and w only vowel a is affected if followed by l or w (none of other vowels).  ball straw  (non best key word). 

Full reading evaluation:  Typical full evaluation session takes 2 1/2 hours. 

IOWA tests of basic skills are worthless for teachers because they determine reading achievement.  Percentile rankings 1-99.  50th in the middle.  Always someone higher and lower.  40-60 average.  100 would mean no one higher and 0 would mean no one lower -- can't be.  Chance percentile in first percentile, cannot read.  Stanine like percentile except in 9s.  Standard nines Stanines 1-9.  5 is like 50. 1 is low 9 is high.  Standard tests- IOWA test of basic skills is NOT diagnostic.  Group reading achievement test.  Used for progress of large groups of students over time, but no good on individual basis.

Directional Confusion - Lateral dominance test is good to give.  If kid has directional confusion.  Doesn't know left and right.  Quick and easy test.  If child makes those kinds of errors, put bracelet on kid's left wrist. Cross laterality - dominant hand and dominant eye are on the opposite side.  Harris Test of Lateral Dominance.  The child must learn to read from left to right for English.  Hebrew reads from right to left.  Child must learn directionality.  Which is dominant side in hand and eye coordination (most right side dominant).  Some have crossed laterality, which is typical of dyslexia.  The concept of left and right are bodily awareness.  Check handedness.  Parent can provide smiley face or something concrete like an ID bracelet on the left wrist.  If child doesn't have dominance, they can pattern from thee bracelet.  There's no point in the teacher saying "left to right."  Forget about left and right because they don't understand because they don't have a dominant side.  Directionality is part of reading readiness.  Words are separated by spaces.  Extends break.  R = right.  circle however the child responds to directions.  Write - observe putting down name.  Go stand by the door -- after break.  Pretend you have a ball.  Throw a ball to me with one hand.  Keep all hand instructions together, all eye items together.  Pick up a pencil and hand it to me.  For eye, roll up a piece of paper and look through it like a telescope.  Poke a hold in paper and peak at me through the hole in the paper.  Hold out a  thumb, close one eye, and look at your thumb.  Not much credence regarding foot:  Stand by the way and walk towards me-- will walk with main foot first.  Stamp out a fire with one foot.  Stand near a chair and put one knee in the chair.  Pretend you are playing soccer and kick the ball.  Where lots of room, put hands at side.  Listen.  Put L hand on R shoulder.  Put R hand under R eye.  Put R hand under L knee.  Put L hand on L shoulder.

WISC picture arrangement.  Order the pictures for a story.  Some kids with direction confusion put them in reverse.  "Tell me the story." will allow teacher to check.

Clinic Spelling Inventory.  How words are selected (spelling tests).  The words you select are from part I on the Inventory.  First test you give is based on stopping pp-2nd grade.  Have 2 colors pen.  Select 10 words as many as bdpq - select those to check for directional confusion.  Must color code.  Use in consecutive order.  Dot (color) after word.  Red for words missed at sight.

You expect dysphonetic spelling.

hlops = helps
sib = said
lik = look
foe = three
teus = trees
rebe = ready
hois = house
cod = could
dranch = branch

Red dot by ones you give child from list.  10 words recognized at sight and mark with other color.  Fold paper in 1/2 long way --not hamburger, want a hot dog fold -- 2 times.  Left edge, number 1-10, four column - middle (they can go from right to left).

Never use lined paper in a diagnosis. 

Add score from left and right column.  Will not exceed 100%.  Spelling test nails a dyslexia problem. 

Form 2 - same thing, but no color.  Kids 3rd grade or beyond.  Phonetic misspellings.  Important how it is misspelled.  Take 10 from independent and 10 from instructional level --words from part 1 or 2.  Student understands relationship between sound and symbol.  Below are more phonetic misspellings.
berned = burned
haveing = having
rase = raise
which = witch
proset = profit
instense = instance 

More about Spelling.  Give 10 words independent and 10 instructional (if don't have phoneme problem)

Phonetic error:  rase raise  Bright kids make a lot of errors like this.  Do they associate sound with symbol?

Case analysis:  Joseph had reading trouble.  Kids with no disability would have trouble learning English (left to right) and Hebrew (read right to left). Speaking in a low voice is a sign of anxiety. 

Look at spelling error not as an error, but ask self:  is it phonetic?  Bright kids don't do well in spelling because there's no cognitive challenge.

Need to have 2 colors--As you dictate the word and 10 recognized words.  You are expecting dysphonetic words.  If you add up two scores, does not exceed 100% if kid is dyslexic.  Use unmarked, lined paper.  Don't use any 2 letter words.  Number 1-10 along left (point).  Use b d p and q  Use lower case.  Kids don't mess up with uppercase.

85% of kids with LD are in that category because of reading problems.  Readability level - 8th grade for example has # of hard or unfamiliar words and number of sentences.  Spelling and reading program need to go together.  Add science or other content words to spelling list.  Have as much consistency as you can get in teaching.  Kid with reading problem may have difficulty with information or vocabulary.

Malingering--Student pretends to have certain problems.  Tries to get sympathy or help.  Don't see many of these.  Left hemisphere - concept formation and reading.  Right spatial can work with blueprints.  Answer to any question on a test - "However you want to do it." 

Bind anxiety - draw boxes around to control.

Diagnosis and Evaluation.  The difference between diagnosing and evaluating should be made explicit because the processes are similar.  Both diagnosis and evaluation involve identification of the degree of presence or absence of certain stipulated qualities, actions, skills, or elements.  In both processes the data generated constitute the basis for future decisions.  The difference between diagnosis and evaluation is related to the type of information generated and the kinds of decisions which will be made or influenced by that information.  EVALUATION yields information which will enable the evaluator to (a) categorize by assigning a label (avg. - above - below; A-B-C) to (b) certify (can/can't) to (c) compare (Ind./groups/systems) or to determine whether to maintain, modify or eliminate a plan (use F.T. for an e.g., - comparison schools).  DIAGNOSIS yields information which can be used to determine WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE TO IMPROVE A SITUATION: ACTION OR ACHIEVEMENT.  The purpose of diagnosis is to suggest a prescription rather than to categorize, certify, or compare.  Types of Diagnosis: 
1.  Formal Diagnosis
2.  Informal Diagnosis - provides reasonable reliable information at the moment it is needed.
a.  Group feedback
b.  Diagnostic OBSERVATION - of a process or of a product.  Gives information that enables the teacher to make a decision; e.g.g, level of difficulty to start teaching.
3.  Inferential Diagnosis - based on the teacher's past experience (Silvaroli story & move chair - basis for diagnosis).
Diagnosis is taking stock, using inventory.  What is the problem?  Inventory takes stock so you know what a student does or doesn't have.  Evaluation simply tells if child is below average on reading.
Model of Diagnosis
1.  Level of survey diagnosis.  Does child really have a problem?
2.  Level of specific diagnosis.  Major diagnostic instrument.  What kind of problem is it?  Informal reading inventory  (decoding vowel sounds).
Things that make a good diagnostician:  intuition, experience, common sense.
3.  Level of intensive diagnosis.
Home, school, and community:  If one fails child, child is at risk.
Reading is a skill.  You have to practice.  Do independent reading.  They have to read themselves to become an independent reader.  Levels:
1.  Innocence
2.  Awareness
3.  Mastery (at school)
4.  Automaticity  (automatic decoding)

Diagnosis is a word that comes from two Greek roots, dia, meaning "through" or "across," and gnosis, meaning "knowledge."  Its literal meaning is "to know thoroughly."  Its medical meaning is the "process of determining the nature of a disease by examination and observation."  For the study of reading disabilities, a more suitable definition is "the act, or result, of identifying disorders from their symptoms."  Unless a child is in 3rd grade of age 8, the school may not evaluate their reading.  At that point it could be too late to correct the problem.

It is necessary to collect facts in making a diagnosis, and tests can contribute many of the needed facts.  But the heart of diagnosis is not testing.  It is, rather, the intelligent interpretation of information by a person who has both the theoretical knowledge and the practical experience to know what questions to ask, to select procedures that can best supply the needed information, to interpret the meaning of the findings correctly, and to comprehend the interrelationships of these facts and meanings.  The natural outcome of a diagnosis is a plan for treatment that involves two parts:  a plan for (1) correcting or minimizing the factors that are still interfering with learning, and (2) a plan for remedial instruction that is most likely to be successful in light of the data obtained from the diagnosis.  But the first step in making a diagnosis is determining if the pupil is a disabled reader.  We're not so interested in numbers, but quality.  What caused the error?  Why is the child below grade level -- qualitative?  What mediated the error behavior?  The error isn't important.  Kold for cold - phonetic misspelling.  brez is a dysphonetic misspelling.  Bright kids are turned off to spelling because there's no cognitive challenge.

CHILD CAN'T READ
If a 12 or 13 year old can't read, the child isn't going to learn to read.  Some think 3rd grade is the cut off--critical moment has passed them by.  Then teach survival reading.  Teach words the child will need to survive in adult society as sight words.  Need words that will be found on job application, signs, newspaper, movie title, and date/time.  Dyslexics are usually extremely bright.  Base program on listening and speaking.  Work on sight words (not phonetically).  Effective treatment depends on an understanding of the causes of a disorder.  Multisensory approach.  The multisensory approach to reading uses visual (see words), auditory, kinesthetic (motor movement, tracing), and tactile (sense of touch, writing on student's back).  Dyslexia needs multisensory - kinesthetic (trace over) and tactile (e.g., letters cut out of sandpaper and write on kid's back.  VAKT = multi-sensory approach.  Visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile.  Regarding reading, the child needs evaluation ASAP and jump on the problem right away.  Why didn't he or she get it the first time.  Retaining a child never works if they repeat a grade (there's a ton of research supporting that view).

Response to Reading
The Jungle by Upton Sinclair affected people at an emotional level.  Affective  (feelings) level, Cognitive-intellectual (comprehension) and automatic:  psycho motor level of functioning, which includes decoding, child says words represented by printed marks.  The goal is to teach child how to use printed marks and child begins to use for automatic function.

To communicate is to hold in common.  Key terms in reading:
glided vowel - long
unglided vowel - short
Information:  The reduction of uncertainty.

Why do we have these nondiagnostic tests?  Tradition or else our lives would be as shaky as a fiddler on the roof.  Hawthorne -- burden of the past -- we are slaves to bygone times.  Lies on us like a dead body.

Auditory acuity is how well you can hear.  Can't change hearing, but can overcome somewhat with hearing aids.  Measured by audiometer, which measures in decibels 15 is average volume.  Cannot be taught because inherited.  Teacher can help identify, suggest evaluation for diagnosis (see audiologist).  Have kids sit close.

End 1st grade -Christmas 2nd grade --left right confusion should end.  If confusion hasn't cleared up, need to test.

Most important thing a child does in school is learn to read.
Parents greatest anxiety is over reading.

Denver Project - educational TV programs for parents, then sent lessons.  Pushed reading back to age 3.
Glen Domin --Teach baby to read.  Institute for human potential.  Theory was reading difficulty meant didn't go through developmental stages (e.g., never crawled).  Inst. doesn't exist any more.

No licensing, anyone can set themselves up as a reading business.

Best predictor of good reading is child knows letters of the alphabet (not song), but can identify.

Visual acuity is how well you can see.  Have it or don't have normal vision.  Normal is 20/20.  Teacher can put child up close.  Ask for repetition (hearing) or holding book to close (sight) may be indicators.

bdpq - early readers have trouble.  Previously child was in 3D world, but in reading in a 2 D world!  Problem lasts into early 2nd grad

Concept Development:  Generalized idea or notion developed through experienced.  Different experience are good.  Percept:  discrete first experience after a number of experiences, begin to generalize.  Differences, but something they all have in common.

The biggest indicator of IQ is ability to form concepts.  Find similarities.  Concept are arranged in hierarchy.
WISC  (plum and peach)
Abstract - 2 points  (fruit, similarities, essence of it)
Functional level - 1 point  (can eat, cook)
Concrete - 1 pt.  (grow on trees, round, other things grow on tree).

One test that will hold up with dyslexia is similarities.  Block design - best indicator in performance area.  IQ verbal (power, no time) and performance (all timed).  Is there a significant difference -- 10-12 pts between 2 tests? If so, performance --then sensory motory problem high or performance disability and verbal low.

Concept load of material is important.

DRA  Directed reading activity.
DRTA  Directed reading thinking activity.
Lesson plan where teacher changes lesson plan to meet the needs of the student.  The list of new words may or may not be correct.  DRTA - higher level skills.
Programs designed to teach English
Initial Teaching Alphabet ITA and other systems.  By 6th grade everything equal, ITA students could read material early and were better spellers. words in color.  Long vowel in color.  From http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vangogh/555/Spell/ita-eval.html#
"The.i.t.a.  is a way to introduce reading using a writing system for English that is as consistent as Spanish and Italian.  The result is that children pick up literacy in this medium twice as fast as in the traditional writing system.  They learn as with fewer failures at the same rapid rate as Italian and Spanish children.
Most  approaches to reading attempt to postpone the introduction of inconsistent spelling and irregular words.  Since over 60% of the words in English are not spelled consistently, this often results in a very reduced vocabulary.  With i.t.a., children  have immediate access to the over 3,000 words that are already in their vocabulary at age 6.  i.t.a. does not postpone vocabulary, it postpones exposure to inconsistent spelling.  In addition, an i.t.a. eliminates the need for children to invent spellings."

TO Traditional Orthography Orthography relates to study of correct spelling according to established usage, the aspect of language study concerned with letters and their sequences in words, and a method of representing a language or the sounds of language by written symbols; spelling.
ITA worked well, but children had difficulty if family moved or tried to read a book from the library.

DISTAR  Direct Instructional System of Teaching Arithmetic and Reading
Long vowels marked with macron (diacritical markings).  Silent letters printed smaller.  Still using TO. Anything with "graph" in it relates to writing.  From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_instruction The DISTAR (Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading) program gained prominence during Project Follow Through (1967-1995), the largest federally-funded experiment in public education.
Features of DI include:
1.  Explicit, systematic instruction based on scripted lesson plans.
2.  Ability grouping. Students are grouped and re-grouped based on their rate of progress through the program.
3.  Emphasis on pace and efficiency of instruction. DI programs are meant to accelerate the performance of students; therefore, lessons are designed to bring students to mastery as quickly as possible.
4.  Frequent assessment. Curriculum-based assessments help place students in ability groups and identify students who require additional intervention.
5.  Embedded professional development/coaching. DI programs may be implemented as stand-alone interventions or as part of a schoolwide reform effort. In both instances, the program developers recommend careful monitoring and coaching of the program in order to ensure a high fidelity of implementation.

Language Experience Approach Language experience approach is no control over vocabulary.  Organics, those words came from the children.  Create a common experience.  A trip to the zoo for example.  Approach is a good system.  Visit a fire station, for example, then kids dictate a story to me.  Teacher doesn't correct.  Incorrect words are organics.  These words are in children's listening and speaking vocabulary and concept load is okay because children all saw the same thing.  Do this once a week.  Write story on paper, make copies, kids sew pages, make cover.  Equalizes for everyone in class.  Science experiment, for example.

Basal Reader with Teacher's Manual
Basal reading, controls vocabulary.  Houghton Mifflin is used a lot.  Controls on skills taught and vocabulary taught.  "Dick and Jane" UMC developed.  95% of children in this country learn to read from basal readers. 

Phonics Approach
Supplemental programs to basal to give more phonics.  Rudolf Flesch - Why Johnny Can't Read.  Rickover "Swiss Schools and Ours.  Arthur Trace.  Comparing English to easily decoded language (e.g., Spanish or French)
English is a conglomeration of other language so became irregular.  Tulsa, OK, Phonetic Keys to Word Mastery is an approach that uses 83 phonic rules.  Too complicated.  Phonics First wanted a course in teaching phonics.

Individualized Approach
Individualized self selection of material.  All reading in low voice.  Go around and listen to child read and make notes and form groups.  Based on self-selection of books by children.  Chair with kid empty chair for teacher, chair with student, empty chair, and so on.  All children reading with low voice, but out loud.  Analyze each.  Teacher can use a doctor's stool to move around.  Good approach.  Self selection of books can be a bigger reading problem because the harder the book they select, the more problems they'll have.
If you suggest a book for a child, it's the kiss of death.  Every Friday, bring in a bunch of books.  Sell each book, read a little from the beginning.  Ask "Who wants to read this book?  Okay, ________ you take it," and give it to the student you think it fits, if he or she asks.

Model:  Formal Reading Instruction
1.  know alphabet
2.  good directional sense
3.  know letters, make words, and words make sentences.

Minimum Skills Model  (Klimer):  Minimum skills model - skills without overburdening, high utility.  Took 5 most widely used basal reading series for grade 1 and 2.  95% of children uses these books.  He cross checked rules and came up with 45 generalizations.  Went to stories to see how often the rule came into effect and how often exceptions.  Use rules with highest % of utility.  1.  Two vowels go walking, the first does the talking.  bead for example. 636 words like this.  309 met the generalizations and 377 exceptions.  Exception:  chiefs  45% of words fit the rule, but still extremely useful.
Model of minimum skills - generalizations with the highest utility.
Low frequency words tend to be unfamiliar spellings - exceptions.
Phonics First people were upset with Klimer's study.  Harris and Burmister replicated Klimer's study on 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade.  The utility went down.  Replicated with 7th and 8th graders and utility actually went down more.  The higher frequency, lower grade, better the generalizations.

1.  Consonants - of 26 graphemes, 21 are consonants, 14 always the same, 17 are regular, 7 are irregular.
2.  Vowels
3.  Structure syllables
Consonants
b - always same way
7 consonants are irregular 
c is irregular "s" cigarette and "k" as candy.
g is irregular, hard or soft, gym or garage.
q is always followed by u.
s has two sounds, initial or middle "said" or final sound like z "toes"
w has all kinds of problems, the worst sound
x is always pronounced like "aks"
y is consonant or vowel spy  Word needs vowel in every syllable.  y start yes and y end is a long vowel "my."
Consonants can cluster. 
Digraph is 2 consonants running together but hear new sound, like "father"  Never split a digraph when making syllabus division because it is one sound.  Common digraphs are th, wh, ch, sh, ng
Blends are when you hear each sound together like street (str) and blend (bl).
Consonants can be silent gn beginning a word, g is silent in "gnat." k and n = k silent "know"  w and r = w is silent as in "writing"  Basic sight words don't apply, these are phonic words that can be sounded out.  the can't be sounded out.
Common word endings taught with basic sight words include s, ed, er, ing.
Vowels.  Long vowel sound is the vowel's name.  Long says its name macron is the long vowel symbol that goes over the vowel, like over the a in ape.  Short vowels - each syllable must contain a vowel sound.  A syllable that ends in a consonant is a closed syllable and the sound is usually short, as in bed.  If syllable ends in a vowel, open syllable, and usually long.  paper pa(long) per(short)
Syllables are not official because we do not speak in syllables.  Pre printing - monastery scribes wrote in longhand.  If word didn't fit, squeezed in.  With moveable type, had to devise a way of separating between lines.  Closed is short.  Open is long - high utility rule.
Magic e rule.  Magic e Man:  Who can turn man into mane?  Tim into time.  If word ends in e, final e is silent.
Irregular vowels
r affected vowel - the bossy "r"
r controlled vowel.  Vowel has new sound when r is in the word.  r gives new sound.
Have students remember a key word.
b = Billy Bat bat (picture)
short a like in bat.
r affected, a followed by r as in star.

All Method :  whatever works.

I.  Factors Influencing Case Typing.
A.  Developmental Case:  A case in which capacity for achievement and current achievement are virtually equal.  IRI (instructional level = capacity level)  Reading Age = mental age. 
achievement = IQ
Reading age = mental age
Chronological age - 5 = reading age.  Mental age is based on IQ
Can read and spell words in his everyday speech.  If achievement levels are commensurate with the capacity level, no retardation is indicated.  Case is then developmental.  If achievement levels are lower than the capacity level, retardation is indicated.  Case must then be inspected for Remedial or Corrective characteristics as follows.
3-5 kids B.  Corrective
Can use usual instruction with, but he missed something along the way.  A case which may result from lack of readiness when initial experiences with reading were provided and continued instruction above the proper level; lack of adequate stimulation in instruction; inadequate background of experience or oral language facility; and so on.  1.  IRI:  (a) instructional level is less than capacity level.  (b)  Oral re-reading rhythm = oral speech pattern  (at independent and instructional levels).  2.  Reading Age is less than Mental Age.  3.  Reading and Spelling are less than oral language development.  4.  No significant indications of inability to profit from visual or visual-auditory techniques.  5.  No severe disturbances of, or interference with, memory functioning.  6.  Few, if any, of the significant remedial patterns indicated below.  Makes gains with visual-auditory approach.

Mild Correctives
Instructional level 6 mo - 1.5 year below capacity.
1.  IRI:  Instructional level ranges from 6 months to a year and 6 months below capacity. level.  2.  Instructional needs are usually word recognition or comprehension.  3.  Remainder of pattern the same as with corrective.  Greatest good is 5-8 in a group.  Get highest priority.  Get back in regular classroom quickest.

C.  Remedial Case
A case of severe reading retardation possibly characterized by associative learning disability, inadequacies in memory span, deficiencies in concept formation, neurological or emotional complications.  Only so much you can do.  Better to work with LD teacher.   1.  IRI (a) instructional level is less than capacity level.  (b)  Low frustration in word recognition abilities.  (c)  Oral rereading not improved.  2.  Word Recognition Test:  (a) Sight vocabulary inadequate at a low level.  (b) Few word analysis skills evident.  3.  Capacity Tests:  (a) WISC verbal (language ) and performance (motor responses - when performance significantly higher than verbal scores, need to do something)  (a) Nonverbal measures are greater than verbal measures. (b)  Limited performance in sub-tests involving memory association, organization and persistence.
There are three types of remedials:
1.  Primary Reading Retardation
A case where the capacity to learn is impaired without definite brain damage suggested in history or on neurological examination.  The defect is in the ability to deal with letters and words as symbols, with resultant material.  The pattern appears to reflect a basic disturbed pattern of neurologic organization - Dyslexia.  When performance IQ is 10-12 points higher than verbal IQ, suggests reading problem.  1.  Imperfect directional sense, such as reversals of bd or pq.  2.  Trouble seeing word as a whole.  3.  Trouble differentiating figure - ground (happens to everyone when tired).  Ground is white page, figure is the black word print.  4.  Trouble recognizing the same word when it appears in a different context, or different size/color.  5.  Trouble with auditory discrimination (rare). 
2.  Brain Injury with Resultant Reading Retardation
A case in which the capacity to learn is impaired by frank brain damage.  Aphasic difficulties are generally present.  History usually reveals the cause of the brain injury; common agents being prenatal toxicity, birth trauma or anoxia, encephalitis (brain fever), and heady injury.  Aphasia:  Usually head accident or other head trauma (not born with)
1.  Receptive - can no longer understand spoken word.
2.  Expressive - can say fundamental core meaning.
3.  Global - both receptive and expressive
Common agents - birth trauma, anoxia (air cut off to brain) Encephalitis - outbreaks in group usually.
3.  Secondary Reading Retardation
A case in which the capacity to learn is intact but is utilized insufficiently for the child to achieve a reading level appropriate to his mental age.  The causative factor is exogenous, the child having a normal reading potential that has been impaired by negativism, anxiety, depression, emotional blocking, psychosis or other external influence.  Application problem.  Normal reading potential.  Emotional blocking (affects comprehension).
ELL Student
Give top priority.  Child needs to speak language.  Best way to learn a language is in a group because you learn from one another.  Bilingual student may be nonlingual, in that the child knows neither language.  When teaching English, best not to speak Spanish (or first language) to the student.  That way the teacher can't jump in and use Spanish.  Before can read language, need adequate oral understanding of the language.  Oral Language Assessment measure.  Best approach for ESL is immersion.  They'd get top priority.  More kids in group for language development the better so students hear and practice.  Learn to speak language.  Watch television.  Often parents don't speak English.  ELL Levels of understanding.
1.  No response.
2.  Noun speech - picks out items in pictures because knows some nouns.
3.  Simple sentences.
4.  Connectives (simple, then complex story.  Complex story is highest. If child can't put a story together, student isn't ready for reading.  When a child dictates a story, you know the word is in child's vocabulary.

TITLE I Formula.
Title I  IQ and level of achievement -22 

Prefix and suffix are added to a rootword to change meaning (initial or ending).

SRA kits - A teacher made in garage and sold.

A child's behavior must be described in psychology terms only.  Non-psychology terms creates a circular description that means nothing.  The child doesn't want to do the work because he is lazy.  He's lazy because he doesn't want to do the work.  The term "immature" is invalid without a qualifying statement.  Physically?  Emotionally?

Characteristic of developmental, correctives, remedials, group size, and causative factors.

Person's rate of reading.  Speed reading is not a good concept.  One should determine the purpose for reading, then select the rate.  May skim or scan depending on the purpose for why you are reading.  Most people read everything at the same rate--slowly.

Causative factors are usually a part of the developmental, corrective, remedial.

What does the term mean, media, mode (large population) mean.  Measures of central tendency.  Who's above and below.

Reader and writer needs similar experiences to attach similar meaning.

Having a child read in class who is a poor reader--tell child in advance to go home and practice it.  Tip off in advance privately.  Repeated reading of predictable text can help children with decoding problems deal with oral reading (aloud).  Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children http://newton.nap.edu/html/prdyc/ch8.html

Students who have difficulty decoding may rely on sight words, general knowledge, prior experience?

Concept formed by experience.  Best indicator of intellectual capacity.  Vocabulary - Know meaning of words.  Can diagnose and treat dyslexia, but can't prevent. 

High interest easy reading:  The Breakthrough series by Allyn & Bacon.  Change unfamiliar to familiar word.  Break down compound sentences to 2 or 3 sentences.  No readability scale considers the concept level.  To be or not to be - considering suicide - has high concept load. 
Try to overcome with field trips to increase experiences.  Audio visual materials can help work on concept development. 
CLOZ procedure -- fill in blank.  Leave the word out (adjectives, verbs, nouns).  If student gets so many right, indicates different levels.  Good with science vocabulary, for example.
Readability formulas use a list of familiar words.  Content area -- expository material -- any textbook reading. 
Two types of reading 1.  Narrative reading.  2.  Content/Expository reading
Curriculum contains reading, writing, arithmetic as skill areas and sciences and government as content areas.
Functional reading is the ability to read connected print fluently and with understanding.

Factual - Literal Question:  The answer is directly stated in the material.  Define a word as it is used in the story.
Vocabulary question:  Question about term.
Inferential question:  Answer not directly stated in story.  Inferences a person makes are determined by experience.
1/3 of teachers leave the field within the first 3 years and 50% leave during the first 5 years.
International Reading Association
Phonics-
1.  Teaching of phonics is important.
2.  Primary grade teachers use phonics.
3.  Phonics needs a total reading language arts program.
Primary emphasis in early grades is on decoding process. R affects the round of all vowels (vowel before r is r-affected).
The problem with phonics is don't overdo!  Hess.
Short syllable is a closed syllable that ends with a consonant.

Informal Reading Inventory
Part A:  Basic skills (Factual/literal questions, vocabulary in story context).  Part B - Good readers challenged with high order thinking skills.  No word lists.  Stories.  Making predictions and drawing inferences.
Part 1 is word lists.  When a person looks at word, does the person recognize and say the word?  Word recognition in isolation (no context of sentence).  There are 10 such lists, 20 per, 200 total.  Every possible combination for forming words in English.  If a child gets through 6th grade level, he or she can decode.  If fall down at 7th, have problems with low frequency words, has not read a lot.  Hasn't read the words enough.
Part 2 - Oral Reading in Context at Sight
Can't tell anything about a child's reading unless he reads out loud to you.  Words from lists are in context of a story.  Easier to decode a word in context.  If child knows words on list then in context doesn't know, it's caused by anxiety.  If voice is higher, that's anxiety. k "At sight" means never saw this story before.  Decoding is the big problem.  Is reading fluent and expressive or word by word -- teachers have to hear students read aloud to diagnose.  Need to know if student uses punctuation, which can be heard aloud.

Four Levels
1.  Independent level.  Reading on own at their level.  Use right materials (no too hard).  Adequate functioning in reading with no help from the teacher.  Word recognition is 99% and comprehension is 90% or better if "adequate functioning."
2.  Instructional level:  Adequate function in reading with help from the teacher.  Defined - word recognition 95% and comprehension is 75%.  Error every other line.  Only ONE condition needs to be met.
3.  Frustration level.  Adequate functioning breaks down.  Word recognition 90% or lower and comprehension 50% or lower.  One error per running line of story.  Child will only experience frustration.  Never give anything at this level except for testing.  When you hit frustration, testing is OVER.
Students have to practice the skills so give materials at their level (not too hard).
If can't decode, I read story, then can still check comprehension through listening.  Reading the story to him does not tell what the story is about.  (Gave an example reading to us in German.  We had no comprehension.)  Start reading at next level.  Dyslexia doesn't affect comprehension.  Use speaking and listening.  Language is where the meaning is, not in print.    There are certain popular wrong answers in the test.
Mildly hesitant versus moderately hesitant when you hear you will know the difference.
Diagnostician's decision:  Kid A is mildly hesitant only 2 high weighted errors (take to next level).  Kid B - all high weighted error and moderately hesitant (stop at this level).  You may lose valuable information.  Maybe student is anxious.  Take to far, then it's nose rubbing about failure.  75% is a warning light coming on, make a decision whether or not to go on.
Diagnostician needs intuition, experience, and common sense.
Marking system for Part 1.  Always begin inventory with pre-primer.  Part 1 is not matter how old the person is.  Only "baby words" in context, so just words. 
Do not clutter the protocols.  Only what kid said.
1.  check if correct:  for (checkmark means decoded correctly)
2.  write word if different:  blue  blow (child's response, word substitution error)
3.  + over self-corrected word:  car (can with plus over it, self corrected.  Child said can, then car.  Lots of self corrected words suggest low decoding confidence.)
4.  circle if omits:  stops circle s (anything encircled means something omitted.  left out s.  common error in inner city.
5.  boy s (child added s to word)
6.  P over word if teacher pronounces:  truck P  (I pronounced the word for student to keep the test going.  If don't get in 3-4 seconds)
7.  part spoken with hyphen p, if couldn't finish word:  engage en-p  (Started to sound out but couldn't finish, so I finished for him).
8.  turkey trucky (nonsense word - not a reversal, not the r affected u, word substitution error)
9.  bay day (true reversal - substitute d for b.  Occasional, is low error.  If a lot, directional confusion indicated. 
10.  caret and word if adds word
11.  arc over word or phrase if student repeats

Child A 75%  Child B 75%
If child misses 5, then stop.  All errors do not have same weight.
Qualitative:
NH = no hesitations
h mildly hesitant
H moderately hesitant
VH very hesitant.
If child can't read, frustrates at PP, should automatically go to full evaluation.
Record 1st time makes an error after 100.  Come in at the child's independent level at reading - don't know about comprehension. If come in at wrong level, must go back.  Need form for every student.  CD will print out.  Don't need part that goes into hands of child (back of book) in Inventory Administration Kit.  Keep 3 x 5 card to control so kid goes slower.  Speak "nice and loud."  All errors are coded, but not all counted.  20 items, 5 points per item on word list.
On Part 2, (F) to left of number means a factual or literal question.  (I) means inferential question.  (V) for vocabulary.  Can give 1/2 credit on 2 part question.  SIG WR Errors means significant word recognition errors.  All errors are coded, but not all are counted.  Only significant word recognition errors.  Interpret- was reading fluent and express?  If in ballpark, but not right, you can probe.  "Tell me more. .  ."  Must write out the wrong answer.  Put (?) to indicate I probed.  "This next part, I'm going to have you read stories out loud.  Then I'll ask some question."  When finish reading, take away so can't look for answer.  Put quantitative over the qualitative information.  Quantitative will be numbers.

FxE Fluent and expressive
fxe Fluent and expressive after got started.
wxw word by word
H Moderately hesitant>
h Mildly hesitant.
IP Ignores punctuation
FP  Finger points (bad because slows eye)
anx Child appears anxious (low voice, swinging, fidgeting)
jerky  Breaks up smoothness of sentence.

Inventory Results
PP or P level:  Few if any word attack skills and very low basic sight word vocabulary.
1 & 2 level:  Needs help with long and short vowels and review basic sight words.
3 or 4  3rd grade no longer basic sight and needs to improve decoding.  Review short vowels.  Needs help with irregular vowel combinations (diphthongs).  Needs help with structural analysis (breaking words into syllables).
5  Review irregular vowel combinations and structural analysis skills.
Failure/Pass 6  No basic word recognition problem.  Needs to do extensive independent reading.  Low frequency words creep in, which are probably the problem.  For example, colonel--know this word by experience (French word pronounced with phonics in French).
Schema = prior knowledge.  Background Knowledge Assessment activates the schema.  Take background into account.  Frustration can be due to lack of background.
Comprehension
+ right answer
DK  doesn't know
- got wrong -write out what kid said
1/2 = 1/2 right
P  I pronounced a word for child.
circled means omitted.
Same as other symbols - all the rest same.  Repeats a word or phrase, then put arc over phrase.  Omit entire line of story, tell child to "go back and read it."
Common low weighted - low significance.
a - the substitution
the bird is singing when supposed to be the birds are singing.  Leave off second error because the first error caused the second error.  Not recognition.  Can't tolerate word - language -- dissonance.  May say how high are we instead of how high we are because unfamiliar sentence structure.
"How" usually ends with a question.
puppy kitten cow baby  Which is different--which one doesn't belong.  Baby is the answer.  Cow only one syllable word.  Cow tells the sex.  Cow only one that doesn't repeat a consonant.  Cow is older.  Baby has 2 legs and human.  Inferential question can have many right answers.    What color is sand?  brown white pink black.  brown is the usual answer.  white on Gulf, prink Bermuda, black in Hawaii.
Student classification:  corrective, mild corrective, developmental, or remedial.
Diagnosis:  word recognition, word recognition and comprehension, comprehension, or application (bad attitude)
Specific instructional needs.
Work on short vowels.
put in scope and sequence
Structural patterns:  prefix, suffix, leave blank if no problem.
Always add at bottom:  Make sure he is on a program of independent reading.  If not, get one started."
Part B:  Can he make inferences?

CRI
Use * to indicate where you went into Part 2.
Self-corrected items in part one still count as errors. 
If two part question, can get 1/2 credit.

Use bullets - Don't necessarily fill in all the space.
When you hit frustration level, then the next level lower MUST be the instructional level.  Always work back from the frustration level.

If student does well in word list to 3rd grade.  Clear sign a decoding problem. 

You don't have to indicate label, but include info.

# sign errors  (quantitative)  top percentage
------------
fluency           (qualitative)

If child failed PP-2 or very poorly at 3rd grade, then you should select 10 words child missed at sight.

Confusion over LC:  Listening capacity count 0, 10, or 20 for each question.  Don't use scoring guide.  Scoring guide only for reading.

Always begin Part 1 at the PP level.  Looks at decoding skills as warm up for part 2.

All errors are counted on Part 1.  All errors are coded but not counted unless significant in Part 2.  In Part 1, if child goes too fast expose words with card one at a time.

If reading too fast, ask to slow down (part 2).

A sentence as appears and way child reads.  Substitution or deletion error.  What kind of error.  Maybe the child is not focused on test, so say "Okay, I'm going to read carefully, but I need for you to listen carefully."   "Significant" means it changes the meaning of the sentence.  Don't count proper names.  Occasional self-corrected is always low weighted.  Consonants -- vowels -- structure/symbols.  What mediated error behavior?

CLASSROOM READING INVENTORY From Book
Part 1:  Graded Word Lists:  Subskills Format
Purposes:
1.  To identify specific word recognition errors.
2.  To estimate the starting level at which the student begins reading the Graded Paragraphs in Part 2.
 

Independent Level (IND)
The independent level is defined as adequate functioning in reading with no help from the teacher.  Adequate functioning means accuracy of  99% in word recognition and 90% comprehension or better.  The teacher will use the independent level estimate in selecting supplementary reading material and the library and trade books students can read comfortably on their own.
Instructional Level
The student will reach a level at which s/he can read with at least accuracy of 95% in word recognition and 75% comprehension or better.  At this level the student needs the teacher's help.  Useful in determining textbook to be used with teacher guidance.
Frustration Level
Symptoms of frustration such as anxiety, tension, excessive finger-pointing, and slow, halting, word-by word reading.  Accuracy drops to accuracy of 90% in word recognition and 50% comprehension or lower.  Avoid this level.

Listening Capacity Level (LC)
Adequate understanding of material that is read to the student by the examiner.  A score of 70% or better is an indication of adequate understanding.

Abbreviations
SIG WR = Significant Word Recognition
COMP = Comprehension
IND = Independent Level
INST = Instructional Level
FRUST = Frustration Level
CRI = Classroom Reading Inventory
(F) = Factual or Literal
(I) = Inference
(V) = Vocabulary

Reference listing for this page:  Aitken, J. E., & Sawyer, M. A.  (2006).  Warren Wheelock on reading diagnosis.  Kansas City, MO:  OnlineAcademics.Org.  Retrieved month day, year, from http://onlineacademics.org

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