Glossary

Glossary and Abbreviations You may want to use your browser’s search--find--function.

2e: Child who has double exceptionalities.

AAMD: American Association of Mental Deficiency

AAMR: American Association of Mental Retardation http://www.aamr.org/

ABA:  Applied behavior analysis.

ABBREVIATIONS
Educators tend to use abbreviations that parents may or may not understand. Here is a list to help.

ABC: Antecedent-behavior-consequence

About: Parenting of K-6 Children. (2006). Parents' index to childhood emotional and behavioral disorders. Retrieved February 21, 2007, from http://childparenting.about.com/cs/disorders/a/childdisorders.htm

ABS: Adaptive Behavior Scales

Accommodation plan. A written plan indicating the accommodations to be made in an educational, work, or other setting for an individual with a disability that substantially limits one or more life activities defined under Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973

ACLD/LDA: Adults and Children with Learning and Developmental Disabilities, Inc. http://www.acldd.org/

Activity reinforcement. Providing opportunities to engage in preferred or high-probability behaviors contingent upon completion of less preferred or low-probability behaviors

ADHD: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

ADHD-C: Combined type

ADHD-HI: Predominantly hyperactive/impulsive type

ADHD-I: Predominantly inattentive type

Aggression. A category of behavior that involves harm, injury, or damage to persons or property (e.g., kicking, pushing, throwing school books)

Aim line. See line of desired progress

AIMS: Assessment for Integration into Mainstream Settings

Alternating treatments design. A single subject research design in which the effectiveness of two or more interventions is compared

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). A federal law passed in 1990 granting rights and protections (primarily access) to persons with disabilities in employment, education, public transportation, health care, and other areas

Analog measures. A role-play or behavioral rehearsal in which an individual demonstrates how he or she would respond in a given social situation

Anger management training. An approach to help juveniles reduce aggressive behavior using modeling, role-playing, visual cues, and homework

Anhedonia-- inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable life events

Antecedent stimuli. Stimuli that precede a behavior; may or may not serve as discriminative stimuli for a specific behavior

Antecedent-behavior-consequence (ABC) analysis. A technique used to systematically identify functional relationships among behaviors and environmental variables

Antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) assessment. A direct observation procedure used to systematically identify potentially functional relationships among behaviors and environmental variables

Antisocial behavior. Behavior that violates socially prescribed norms or patterns of behavior

Anxiety disorders. Illnesses that fill people's lives with excessive, irrational dread of everyday situations; can be extremely disabling

APA: American Psychological Association

Applied behavior analysis. A systematic, performance-based, self-evaluative technology for assessing and changing behavior

ARC Association for Retarded Citizens.

ASD Autism spectrum disorder

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more severe and frequent than in individuals at a comparable level of development and that originates prior to 7 years of age

Automatic reinforcement. The reinforcement is produced independent of the social environment

Aversive stimulus. A noxious stimulus having the effect of decreasing the rate or probability of a behavior when presented as a consequence (punishment); alternately, may have the effect of increasing the rate or probability of a behavior (negative reinforcement) when that behavior allows the student to escape or avoid contact with the stimulus

Bar graph. A method of visually displaying data; may be used to show progress toward a specific goal or objective

Baseline data. Data points that reflect an operant level (the level of natural occurrence of the target behavior before intervention); serve a purpose similar to a pretest; provide a level of behavior to which the results of an intervention procedure can be compared

Baseline. A condition in which no treatment or intervention variables are in effect

Behavior contract (behavior change contract, contingency contract). Written, signed agreement between the teacher, parent, therapist, or other behavior change agent and the child, specifically and positively stating in an if-then format what consequence will result from the child's performance of the desired target behavior

Behavior intervention plan (BIP). A plan for addressing undesired student behavior that involves assessment to identify the function of the behavior, strategies for teaching and reinforcing appropriate behavior to replace the undesired behavior, and procedures for responding to the undesired behavior when it occurs

Behavior report. A format for reporting instances of students' positive or undesired behavior

Behavior specialist. A professional specially trained to provide consultation and technical assistance to school personnel regarding strategies for addressing student behavior

Behavior Support Team. A group of persons who design, implement, and monitor behavior intervention plans for students

Behavioral Consultants

Behavioral contexts. Any setting in which behavior occurs

Behavioral interviews. An important part of the assessment process, interviewing students, parents, teachers, and other persons to gather information about a student's strengths and needs

Behavioral objectives. Statements of the behavior to be achieved following intervention, the conditions under which the behavior will occur, and the criterion for acceptable performance

Behaviorism

Behavior-specific praise. A praise statement that includes specific mention of the desired behavior being reinforced

Binge drinking. Drinking an excessive amount of alcohol on the same occasion (i.e., within a few hours)

BIP: Behavior Intervention Planning

Bipolar disorder. Disorder in which depression alternates with mania with associated symptoms such as decreased need for sleep, irritability, impulsivity and excessive risk taking

Bulimia. An eating disorder in which eating binges are accompanied by vomiting, often self-induced

CAPD: central auditory processing disorder

CC: Cross Categorical

CCBD: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders

CD: Conduct disorder

CEC: Council for Exceptional Children

Celeration

Changing criterion design. A single-subject experimental design that involves successively or gradually changing the criterion for reinforcement, systematically increasing or decreasing in a step-wise manner

Chart. A method of visually displaying data using several to many data-representation symbols

Checklist. A quick, informal, yet systematic tool used to inventory behavior patterns and risk factors that may be associated with behavior disorders; a checklist may be completed by a parent, teacher, sibling, peer, or the target student

CMO: Conditioned motivation operation--Variables that alter the reinforcing effectiveness of other events.

CNS: Central nervous system

Cognitive behavior modification. An approach that involves teaching students to apply cognitive strategies in interpersonal problem solving

Communicative function. Maladaptive behaviors can occur because students lack or do not use more effective means of communicating their needs or obtaining reinforcement; replacement behaviors which serve the same communicative function must be taught

Communicative function. Maladaptive behaviors can occur because students lack or do not use more effective means of communicating their needs or obtaining reinforcement; replacement behaviors which serve the same communicative function must be taught

Community-based training. Behavioral interventions implemented in natural settings rather than in the classroom in order to promote skill transfer

Comorbidity. The co-occurrence of two or more disorders in one child

Competing explanations. Uncontrolled factors that influence the behavior simultaneously with the intervention and therefore constitute alternate explanations for the effect of the independent variable; confounding variables

Condition lines. Vertical lines drawn on a behavioral graph that separate adjacent conditions (e.g., baseline and intervention)

Conditioned reinforcer. secondary or learned reinforcer; a stimulus that has acquired a reinforcing function through pairing with a previously established reinforcer; most social, activity, and generalized reinforcers are conditioned

Conditions. Within a behavioral objective, the part that specifies where, when, and with whom a target behavior will occur; description of the antecedents, including prompts and setting events, that will signal the behavior to occur; also, within a behavioral intervention or research design, a description of the circumstances in which behavior is observed (e.g., baseline, treatment)

Conduct disorder. An emotional/behavioral disorder characterized by persistent behaviors that violate rules or the rights of others

Consequent stimuli (consequences). Stimuli that are presented contingently following a particular response

Consulting teacher. A professional educator who provides technical assistance to direct teaching staff on student academic or behavioral problems

Contingency. The relationship between behavior and its consequences; contingencies are often stated in the form "if-then"

Contingent observation. A form of timeout in which a child is removed from reinforcement while observing others receiving reinforcement

Continuous behavior. A behavior that has no obvious starting or ending point (e.g., off-task)

Cooperative learning. An instructional activity in which students work in small, structured learning groups with a common goal or purpose

Coprophagia. The eating of feces

Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (CCBD). Major professional organization for special educators serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. http://www.ccbd.net/

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). Major professional organization for special educators serving students with disabilities

Criterion of ultimate functioning. The functional skills needed by adults to participate freely in community environments

Cumulative graph. A graphic presentation of successive summed numbers (rate, frequency, percentage, duration) that represent behavioral occurrences

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM). Assessing student performance relative to the goals and objectives of a specific academic or social curriculum

CWC: Class-within-a-class (SPED teacher works in classroom with gen ed teacher)

Data decision rules. Rules that suggest how to respond to patterns in student performance; developed by the teacher to facilitate the efficient and effective evaluation of instructional and behavior management programs

Data-based decision making. Using direct and frequent measures of a behavior as a basis for comparing student performance to a desired level and making adjustments in the student's educational program based on these comparisons

DD: Developmental Disabilities

Dependent group contingency. The performance of certain group members that determines the consequence received by the entire group

Dependent measures. Variables that are measured while another variable (the independent variable) is changed in a systematic way, with the goal of establishing a relationship between the two sets of variables

Dependent variable. The behavior that is changed by intervention, through manipulation of an independent variable

Depression. A behavioral disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of sadness, hopelessness, anhedonia, emptiness, or discouragement that are out of proportion to reality; physical symptoms may include eating, sleeping, or sexual excesses or deficits; affect can range widely from listless apathy to suicidal recklessness

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV-TR). A manual that defines and classifies mental disorders according to American Psychiatric Association guidelines (APA, 2000)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4^th Edition (DSM-IV). A manual that defines and classifies mental disorders according to American Psychiatric Association guidelines (APA, 1997)

Differential reinforcement of alternate behavior (DRA). A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for behaviors that are alternatives to the target behavior

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI). Systematically reinforcing a response that is topographically incompatible with a behavior targeted for reduction

Differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior (DRL). A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered when the number of responses in a specified period of time is less than or equal to a prescribed limit; encourages maintenance of a behavior at a predetermined rate lower than the baseline or naturally occurring rate

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered when the target behavior is not emitted for a specified period of time; behaviors other than the target behaviors are specifically reinforced; also referred to as differential reinforcement of the omission of behavior

Differential reinforcement. Four strategies that involve reinforcement applied differentially to reduce undesired behaviors while increasing desired behaviors; see DRL, DRO, DRI, and DRA

Direct assessment of behavior. Any behavioral assessment that involves observing the behavior directly (see direct observation)

Discrete behavior. A behavior that has a distinct beginning and ending point (e.g., hand raise)

Discrete learning trials. An instructional sequence that involves the presentation of a prompt or discriminative stimulus, a pupil response, and subsequent teacher feedback

Discriminative stimulus (SD). An antecedent stimulus that is likely to occasion a particular response because it signals the probability that reinforcement will follow the response

Distributed trials. A series of discrete learning trials that are distributed over a period of time, such as a class period or a school day

DRA: Differential reinforcement of alternate behavior

DRI: Differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors

DRL: Differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior

DRO: Differential reinforcement of other behavior

Drug and alcohol abuse. When an individual makes a conscious choice to use drugs despite negative consequences within a 12-month period

DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4^th Edition

Duration recording. Measuring the amount of time between the initiation of a response and its conclusion; total duration recording is recording cumulative time between the initiation of a response and its final conclusion (e.g., one may record cumulative time out-of-seat across several instances); duration per occurrence is recording each behavioral event and its duration

Dyscalculia is a lessor-known learning disability that affects mathematical calculations. It is derived from the generic name "mathematics difficulty". http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/dyscalcula.html The term appears to be seldom used within public schools because of the lack of any clear, measurable criteria. Nevertheless, many students have it. To be successful in mathematics, one needs to be able to visualize numbers and mathematics situations. Students with dyscalculia have a very difficult time visualizing numbers and often mentally mix up the numbers, resulting in what appear to be "stupid mistakes."  Students who have difficulty sequencing or organizing detailed information often have difficulty remembering specific facts and formulas for completing their mathematical calculations.

Dysthymia. A persistent mood of depression or irritability, more days than not, for most of the day, for at least a year

Eating disorders. Maladaptive, health-threatening behaviors that involve food; see anorexia nervosa, bulimia

EBD: Emotional or behavior disorder.

Ecological ceiling. Acknowledgment that it is unrealistic to expect target behaviors to increase or decrease to rates above or below those of peers in the same settings

Edible reinforcer. An edible item that is reinforcing for the student, given contingent upon the performance of desired behavior

Educational Agencies & Corporations

Effective behavioral support. See positive behavior support

Elective mutism. Refusal to talk by an individual who is able to talk; may occur in one setting and not in others

ELPA: English Language Proficiency Assessment

Enhancement procedures. Behavior change strategies that are designed to increase the rates of occurrence of desired behaviors

Environmentally mediated interventions. Changing of some aspect of the environment to prevent or manage behavioral problems

EO: Establishing operations

Equal interval graph. A format for presenting behavioral data; vertical lines represent training sessions or calendar days and horizontal lines may represent number, percentage, or rate (frequency); emphasizes absolute differences among data points

Equal ratio graph. A format for presenting behavioral data in terms of rate per minute or percent; semilogarithmic rather than additive, therefore changes in rate of performance that are proportionately equal are visually presented as equal

Escape and avoidance behaviors. Behaviors that occur in the presence of actual or likely aversive stimuli that results in escape or avoidance of contact with such stimuli

eval: evaluation

Eval: evaluation

Exclusionary time-out. A form of timeout in which the student is temporarily excluded from the setting in which reinforcement is available

Experimental control. The demonstration that manipulation of the independent variable is responsible for observed changes in the dependent variable

External validity. Demonstration that an intervention is effective across multiple students, settings, and intervention agents

Externalizing. Behaviors characterized as acting out or excessive in frequency, duration, or intensity (e.g., physical aggression, swearing)

Extinction. Systematic withholding of reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior in order to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of the behavior

Extinction. Systematic withholding of reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior in order to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of the behavior

Fair pair rule. Teaching and/or positively reinforcing a desired social behavior to replace the behavior to be reduced

FAS: fetal alcohol syndrome

FBA: Functional Behavior Assessment

FES: Fetal alcohol effects

Formative evaluation. Evaluation that occurs as skills are being developed

Frequency polygon. A noncumulative frequency graph; may be used to report frequency, rate, or percent data

Frequency recording. Counting the number of occurrences of a specific behavior in a specified period of time

Full inclusion. Providing students with disabilities with full access to the general education curriculum, usually through physical placement in regular education classes.

Functional analysis. A technique used to systematically identify functional relationships between behaviors and environmental variables through manipulating the latter and observing effects on the behavior of interest

Functional analysis. A technique used to systematically identify functional relationships between behaviors and environmental variables

Functional assessment. The process of identifying the cause or function of behavior before designing or implementing a behavioral intervention

Functional behavioral assessment (FBA). A process conducted to identify the potential functions that a student's maladaptive behavior serves

Functional relationships. In applied behavior analysis, demonstrated when a behavior varies systematically with the application of an intervention procedure; sometimes called a cause-and-effect relationship; change in a dependent variable due to a change in an independent variable (see experimental control)

GE: General Education (Gen. Ed.) is the regular curriculum.

gen ed: general education

Generalization plan. A formal, written plan designed to extend a student's acquired behavior to other settings so that it occurs in the presence of cues, materials, individuals, and environments other than those in which it was initially taught

Generalized anxiety disorder. An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic worry and exaggerated tension that persists at least six months

Graph. A method of visually displaying data; typically uses only one or two symbols to represent data

Group goal setting and feedback. An intervention that consists of two major components: (1) the teacher assists each student in establishing a social behavior goal; and (2) each student receives teacher and peer feedback on progress toward that goal during highly structured group discussions

High-probability behavior. Behavior that has a high likelihood of occurrence; preferred activity.

High-probability requests. Requests to which the student has a history of responding

HIPAA: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996

Home schooling

Home-based contract. Written contingencies for reinforcement in which parents have agreed to participate

Hypersomnia. A disturbance in sleep patterns caused by psychological rather than physical factors; this very deep or long sleep is very disabling

ICLD: Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities

ICLD: Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities

IDEA 2004 Changes (e.g., identifying children with specific learning disabilities, abandoning the discrepancy between IQ & achievement model, Response to Intervention, diagnosing learning disabilities) see: http://www.wrightslaw.com/idea/art/iep.roadmap.htm In defining the IDEA 2004 and NJCLD 1998 definitions, both discuss characteristics.

IDEA 2004 Changes (e.g., identifying children with specific learning disabilities, abandoning the discrepancy between IQ & achievement model, Response to Intervention, diagnosing learning disabilities) see:
IDEA 2004 and NJCLD 1998 definitions, both discuss characteristics (Wrights Law). Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, most recent is 2004.

IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, most recent is 2004.

IEP Team: Individualized Education Program Team

IEP: Individualized education program

IFSP: Individualized family service program required for services from birth to age five.

IFSP: Individualized family service program required for services from birth to age five.

Independent group contingency. Group behavior management strategy in which the same response contingency is in effect for all group members, but is applied to each student's performance on an individual basis

Independent variable. The treatment or intervention under experimenter control that is being manipulated in order to change a behavior (dependent variable)

Indirect behavioral assessment. Any behavioral assessment that does not involve direct observation of behavior (e.g., interviews, rating scales)

Individualized Education Plan Team (IEP Team). A group of persons responsible for developing, supervising, and evaluating the program of special education and related services for a student with a disability

Individualized educational plan (IEP). A written educational plan developed for each student eligible for special education

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The major federal legislation regulating the education of students with disabilities

Intensive intervention. Comprehensive and multi-faceted intervention strategies that typically involve multiple services and providers

Interdependent group contingency. Group behavioral intervention in which each student must reach a prescribed level of behavior before the entire group may receive positive reinforcement for that behavior

Interim alternative educational setting. Segregated educational settings in which students with disabilities may be placed for disciplinary reasons

Internal validity. Demonstration that the implementation of an intervention (independent variable) is responsible for observed changes in a target behavior (dependent variable)

Internalizing. Behaviors characterized as withdrawn or insufficient in frequency, duration, or intensity (e.g., social withdrawal, elective mutism)

Interobserver agreement. Comparison of observation data between two or more observers to check the accuracy of measurement

Interruption and redirection. An intervention that uses the minimal prompt necessary to stop a target behavior and refocus the student on a more appropriate behavior

Interval recording. An observational recording system in which an observation period is divided into a number of short intervals, and the observer counts the number of intervals during which the behavior occurs rather than instances of the behavior

Intervention. Systematic involvement with a student in order to improve his or her performance socially, emotionally, or academically

Intrusiveness. The extent to which interventions impinge or encroach on students' bodies or personal rights

IPlans (IEP, IFSP, ITP) identify the skills and behaviors the student has developed, the skills and behaviors that are reasonable goals for the next year, and the resources, support, and personnel needed to help attain those goals.

IQ: Intelligence Quotient. 100 is average.

ITP: individualized transition program by time child is 14

JABA: Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

K-ABC: an intelligence test.

Keller, E. (2006). Strategies for teaching students with behavioral disorders. Retrieved February 21, 2007, from http://www.as.wvu.edu/~scidis/behavior.html

LD: Learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. From the previous definition, may include conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. There is (a) an area of deficit, (b) a basic brain dysfunction or central nervous system or psychological processing problem (something to do with the way the brain works), (c) can be one or more disorders.

LEA: Local educational agency or local educational association.

Least restrictive environment (LRE). The educational placement imposing the fewest restrictions on a student's normal academic or social functioning, and allowing the greatest access to the general education curriculum

LEP: Limited English proficiency

Level. Quantity of behavior as represented on a graph

Levels system. A method of differentiating hierarchically any aspect of an individual's performance (e.g., in a token economy or for assessment purposes); also referred to as phase system

LIFT: Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers

Line of desired progress (aim line). A line drawn on a behavior graph to depict the desired rate of pupil progress toward a terminal goal

LLD language learning disabled

Local education agency (LEA). Agency responsible for the delivery of local educational programs and services

Long-term objective. A written statement of behavior that is projected at the end of instruction or intervention, including the conditions and criteria for documenting attainment

Low-probability behavior. Less preferred behavior; unlikely to occur without contingent reinforcement

LRE: Least restrictive environment

Major depression. An illness with at least five of these symptoms: depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, diminished interest in activities, change in appetite, change in sleep patterns, agitation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, diminished ability to concentrate, thoughts of death, impairment in important areas of functioning; these symptoms are present during a two-week period and at least one of the symptoms is either depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure

Manifestation determination. A decision by a student's IEP team regarding whether the student's prohibited behavior (weapons or drugs) is a manifestation of the student's disability

MAS: Motivation assessment scale

Massed trials. Discrete learning trials that are presented in a continuous series (e.g., a sequence of 10 trials)

MDT: Multidisciplinary team.

Measurement probes. Periodic data samples used in making intervention decisions

Measurement probes. Periodic data samples used in making intervention decisions

MID: Mild intellectual disability

MM/CC: Mild to Moderate Disabilities Cross Categorical

MO: Motivative operations.  There are two main types of MOs, unconditioned and conditioned.  Both of these MOs are motivational because they increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur and at the same time increase the power of the reinforcer that follows the behavior.

Modeling. An instructional procedure by which demonstrations of a desired behavior are presented in order to prompt an imitative response

Momentary time sampling. Recording the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a behavior immediately following a specified interval of time

Mood disorder. This disorder involves the presence or the absence of mood episodes that accompany Depressive Disorders, Bipolar Disorders, Mood Disorder that results from a medical problem, and Substance-Induced Mood Disorder (APA, 2000)

Motivative operations. An event or stimulus that affects an individual by momentarily changing the reforcing effectiveness of other events

Movement suppression procedure. A variation of timeout from reinforcement in which the student is punished for any movement or verbalization while in a timeout area

MR: Mental Retardation refers to significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning exists concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects a child's educational performance (34 C. F. R., Sec. 300 7[b][5]) (US Office of Education, 1977, p. 42478) IDEA 2004 clarification based on general intellectual functioning, significantly subaverage IQ of 70 (sometimes 75) or below, deficits in adaptive behavior, and developmental periods conception-age 18. IQ is stable over lifetime, within 10 points.

MSLBD: Midwest Symposium for Leadership in Behavior Disorders

Multiple baseline designs. Single-subject experimental designs in which a treatment is replicated across (1) two or more students, (2) two or more behaviors, or (3) two or more settings; functional relationships may be demonstrated as changes in the dependent variables occur with the systematic and sequenced introduction of the independent variable

Multiple probe design. A variation of the multiple baseline design in which data are collected periodically rather than continuously across settings, behaviors, or students.

National Association of Special Education Teachers

National Center on Learning Disabilities

National Center on Student Progress Monitoring

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (1996). Educating students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Retrieved February 21, 2007.

National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS)

National Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support

NCATE: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education

NCLB: No Child Left Behind

NCR: Noncontingent reinforcement.  The response-independent or time-based delivery of stimuli with known reinforcing properties.  Noncontingent Reinforcement removes the extinction component that is a necessary part of a differential reinforcement procedure.  Staff responsible for its implementation may find it easier to implement with the absence of an obvious contingent event.

Negative reinforcement. The increase in rate or future probability of a behavior that occurs when the behavior successfully avoids or terminates contact with an aversive stimulus

NICHCY Connections...to Behavior Assessment, Plans, and Positive Supports

NIDA: National Institute on Drug Abuse

NJCLD National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities

NJCLD National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities

NLD: nonverbal learning disorder

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Federal law passed in 2001 that addresses improved student outcomes through greater accountability of individual schools

Noncontingent reinforcement. "A response-independent or time-based delivery of stimuli with known reinforcing properties," and its possible advantages over the use of differential reinforcement of other behavior (Vollmer, Iwata, Zarcone, Smith & Mazaleski (1993, p. 10)

Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Repeated unwanted thoughts or compulsive behaviors that seem impossible to control

OCD Obsessive-compulsive disorder

ODD Operational Defiant Disorder, which is characterized by arguing with multiple adults, losing one's temper, refusing to follow rules, blaming others, deliberately annoying others, being angry, resentful, spiteful, and vindictive, trying to break rules without getting caught, destructive, lie, steal.

ODR: Office discipline referral

Office discipline referral (ODR). A format for reporting individual student behavior incidents to the school office for disciplinary purposes

Office of Special Education Programs Technical Assistance Centers

Operational definition. Describing a behavior in terms of its observable and measurable component parts

Opportunities to respond (OTR). Giving students multiple opportunities to respond with correct academic or social information or behavior

Overcorrection. A procedure used to reduce the occurrence of an inappropriate behavior; the student is taught the appropriate behavior in which to engage through an exaggeration of experience; see positive practice and restitutional overcorrection

Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights. (2006). Emotional or behavioral disorders. .

PATHWAYS: Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies

PBS: positive behavior support

PCBs: Polychlorinated Biphenyls

PDD-NOS: Refers to pervasive developmental disorder - not otherwise specified (Autism subcategory)

PDD-NOS: Refers to pervasive developmental disorder - not otherwise specified (Autism subcategory)

Peer manager strategy. Young, socially withdrawn students being trained to play "class manager" to increase their social interactions and sociometric ratings

Peer tutoring. Formal instruction of one child by another

Peer-mediated interventions. An intervention that requires a member of the individual's peer group, rather than an adult, to take the primary role as the agent of behavior change

Peer-monitoring procedure. Having students observe and record the behavior of a classmate

Perceptual reinforcement. Reinforcement by engaging in particular perceptual experiences; a key to understanding self-stimulatory behaviors is to view them as a form of perceptual self-reinforcement

Performance graph. A graph that plots a change in a single task or behavior

Permanent products. Tangible evidence of the occurrence of a behavior (e.g., written work, numerical count, videotape, physical injury, or property damage)

Phase change lines. Vertical lines drawn on a behavior graph to designate where program changes have been made

PHS: Public Health Service

Physical aversive. An unpleasant or painful physical stimulus, such as foul tastes and odors, electric shock, slaps, and pinches, used to punish dangerous maladaptive behaviors (such as SIB) when less intrusive methods have failed

PIAT: Peabody Individual Achievement Test

Pica. The persistent eating of nonfood substances (i.e. paper, paint, dirt, etc.)

Pinpoint. Specifying in measurable, observable terms a behavior targeted for change

PKU: Phenylketonuria, a genetic defect that can be identified in the newborn by a simple blood test.

Planned ignoring. A variation of timeout in which social proximity and attention are consistently withheld for a specific length of time immediately contingent on a pupil's undesirable behavior

Portfolios. Collections of representative samples of a student's work used to measure proficiency, rate of skill development, and effectiveness of teaching methods

Positive Behavior Support

Positive Behavior Support. Behavior change strategies that involve focusing on procedures for teaching, strengthening, and supporting desired student behavior rather than simply punishing undesired behavior

Positive practice overcorrection. A procedure in which the student is required to engage in a period of exaggerated alternative behaviors (e.g., exercises) after an episode of an unwanted behavior

Positive reinforcement. The presentation of a stimulus contingent on the occurrence of a behavior that results in an increase in the rate or future probability of that behavior over time

Posttraumatic stress disorder. Persistent symptoms that occur after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event; nightmares, flashbacks, numbing of emotions, depression, and feeling angry, irritable or distracted and being easily startled are common

Pragmatic language skills. The functional use of language to express social intentions in ways that are culturally acceptable

Pre-correction. Adjustment in academic or social instruction based on the teacher's anticipation of student error and intended to prevent errors by providing supportive prompts

Prereferral intervention. Straightforward and relatively easy program modifications implemented by the regular classroom teacher to see if behavior problems can be solved without referring the student for formal evaluation for special education placement

Primary prevention. Strategies to prevent initial occurrences of a disorder or problem that are applied to all individuals in a setting

Primary treatment settings. The settings in which interventions are applied directly

Problem behavior pathway. A description of events and stimuli that typically occur before and following an instance of problem behavior, including setting events, antecedent stimuli, the behavior itself, and consequences

Progress graph. A graph that shows progress toward mastery of a set of objectives

Projective technique. A psychological assessment procedure in which the client "projects" thoughts and feelings through responses to ambiguous stimuli such as pictures or ink blots

Proprioceptive A sensory receptor, found chiefly in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear, that detects the motion or position of the body or a limb by responding to stimuli arising within the organism.

Psychotropic medication. Medication prescribed by a licensed physician to control the symptoms of a psychiatric disorder

Public posting. Publicly listing the names of persons who have (or have not) engaged in a target behavior

Punishment. Presentation of an aversive stimulus, or the removal of a positive reinforcer (response cost) as a consequence for behavior which reduces the future rate of the behavior

Rate per minute. The frequency of a behavior divided by the time period during which it was observed. Formula: frequency/time = rate

Rating scales. A scale using information supplied by a teacher, parent, sibling, peer, or the target student to describe the child's behavior

RC: Response Cost

RE Menu: Reinforcing event menu

Reductive procedures. Behavior change strategies that are designed to decrease the rates of occurrence of undesired behaviors

Reinforcement. Provision of a reinforcing consequence or removal of an aversive stimulus contingent upon the occurrence of a behavior, resulting in an increased or maintained rate of the behavior in the future

Reinforcer sampling. Prior to the start of a behavioral intervention, the student is provided with samples of reinforcers which may be earned during the intervention

Reinforcing event menu (RE menu). A pictorial or verbal list of a variety of reinforcing events

Replacement behavior. A desirable skill that is strengthened as undesirable maladaptive behaviors are reduced; often replacement behaviors serve the same function as the maladaptive behavior

Replacement behavior. A desirable skill that is strengthened as undesirable maladaptive behavior is reduced; often replacement behaviors serve the same function as the maladaptive behavior

Reponse to Intervention Policy Considerations and Implementation: www.nasdse.org

Reprimands. A verbal aversive used by adults to influence children's behavior by telling them their behavior is inappropriate

Research-validated practices. Instructional or treatment practices that have been established as effective through empirical research

Response cost. A procedure for the reduction of inappropriate behavior through withdrawal of specific amounts of reinforcers contingent upon the behavior's occurrence; fine or penalty

Response efficiency. The degree to which a replacement behavior results in the same functional outcome as the problem behavior

Response equivalency. The degree to which the replacement behavior serves the same function as the problem behavior

Response generalization. Changes in untreated behaviors related to those behaviors targeted for intervention

Response latency recording. A measurement strategy in which the time it takes for a student to comply with a task request is recorded. Formula: Time task request is given − time student begins to comply with the request = response latency

Response maintenance. The continuation or durability of behavior on a naturally occurring reinforcement schedule after an intervention has been withdrawn

Response topography. The form or movements that comprise a specific behavior (e.g., hand raise, out-of seat)

Response-reinforcer procedure. An intervention in which the immediate environment is manipulated so that the student, as a result of completing a task, has immediate access to a reinforcer physically imbedded within the task

Restitutional overcorrection. The student must restore an environment which he or she has disturbed to its condition before the disturbance and must then improve it beyond its original condition, thereby overcorrecting the effects of his/her behavior on the environment

Restrictiveness. The extent to which an intervention inhibits a student's freedom to live like other students

Reversal designs. ABAB design, similar to withdrawal design; a type of single-subject research design in which an intervention condition is reversed in order to verify the existence of a functional relationship; its four phases include baseline (A), intervention (B), contratherapeutic reversal of intervention which may be similar but is not identical to baseline (C), and reinstatement of intervention (B)

Ritualistic. Repetitive, stereotypic acts that appear to have no function in the environment

RTI Response to Intervention A method under IDEA 2004 that requires the district to use scientific, research-based intervention with children who may have learning disabilities. The idea is to make sure the problem is not the result of poor teaching. Schools "shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability." The IQ-discrepancy criterion is potentially harmful to students as it results in delaying intervention until the student's achievement is sufficiently low that the discrepancy is achieved. Typically, by the time of diagnosis, remediation is difficult. See Wrightslaw http://www.wrightslaw.com/

RtI: Response to Intervention or research based strategies to improve learning or behavior for students who may be diagnosed with disabilities.

SAP: Student Assistance Program

Scatter plot. A method of direct behavioral assessment that identifies circumstances (times of day, activities, etc.) in which problem behavior occurs or does not occur

Schedule of reinforcement. A schedule for the delivery of reinforcers established to increase or maintain behavior

School refusal. A child's refusal to attend school and remain in class for an entire day

School survival skills. Skills necessary to do well in school, such as classroom deportment and time-management strategies

Screening. Identification of students at risk for behavioral problems

SD: Standard Deviation

SEA: State educational association.

Seclusionary time-out. A timeout procedure in which the student is placed in a secluded environment for a limited period of time

Secondary prevention. Strategies to prevent re-occurrences of a disorder or problem that are applied to individuals who have been designated as at risk for same

Section 504. Part of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 guaranteeing the protection of civil rights of persons with disabilities

Self-determination. Acting as the primary decision maker in one's life; persons with disabilities who engage in self-determination make choices over how, where, and with whom they will live their lives

Self-evaluation. A procedure in which the student assesses his or her own behavior by rating

Self-injurious behavior (SIB). Behaviors that hurt the person exhibiting them; also referred to as "self-mutilating" or "self-destructive" behaviors

Self-instruction. A procedure in which students use self-talk in the form of "coping statements" as an aid to problem-solving

Self-mediated interventions. Strategies for behavior management in which the student controls his or her own planned intervention

Self-mediated strategies. Strategies for behavior management in which the student controls his or her own planned intervention

Self-monitoring. Recording one's own behavior to increase one's time on-task, academic productivity, or appropriate social interactions

Self-mutilating behavior. Self-injurious behavior that results in tissue damage

Self-recording. Students recording data on their own performance

Self-regulation. A range of procedures (e.g., self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement) in which the student acts as his or her own behavior change agent; self-regulation is relatively non-intrusive, nonrestrictive and allows classroom activities to proceed with a minimum of interruptions

Self-reinforcement. A procedure in which the student administers reinforcement for his or her own behavior

Self-report. A procedure whereby students report their own performance

Self-stimulatory behavior (SSB). Any repetitive, stereotypic activity that appears to serve no purpose other than to provide sensory feedback

Sensory extinction. A procedure designed to eliminate a particular sensory consequence of a given behavior; based on the hypothesis that certain individuals have a strong preference for one aspect of sensory input (e.g., tactile, proprioceptive, visual, or auditory) and engage in self-stimulatory behaviors to increase this sensory input

Sensory reinforcement. Providing the child with preferred sensory experiences contingent on behavior

Separation anxiety disorder. Intense fear and worry when separated from significant others or familiar surroundings; separation anxiety is typical of a developmental stage in toddlers, but is of concern when it persists or occurs in older students

SES: Socioeconomic status

Setting events. Antecedent stimuli such as a time of day, transition period, or the behavior of peers and teachers that set the occasion for certain behaviors

Shaping. Behavior change process in which a new or unfamiliar behavior is taught through reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior, progressing step-by-step toward a terminal objective

Short-term objective. A written statement of behavior that is projected at interim points during instruction or intervention, including the conditions and criteria for documenting attainment

SIB: Self-injurious behaviors

SIB-C: Self-injury and self-restraint

Single-subject research design. Experiment intended to establish a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables; in a single-subject design the target individual's behavior is measured across several environmental conditions (e.g., baseline and intervention), thus, the individual serves as his or her own control

SLD: Specific learning disability.

SLP: Speech language pathologist.

Social anxiety disorder. An overwhelming and disabling fear of scrutiny, embarrassment, or humiliation in social situations, which leads to avoidance of many potentially pleasurable and meaningful activities

Social competence. An ability to establish satisfactory social relationships

Social reinforcement. Teacher or peer attention (feedback, attention, and approval) given contingent on behavior which maintains or increases the behavior

Social skills. Specific social behaviors (e.g., a greeting, a nod during a conversation, a handshake) that facilitate interpersonal interactions

Social validation. Degree to which significant others agree that a behavior should be changed, approve of a particular behavioral intervention, or concur that intervention has been effective

Social withdrawal. A cluster of behaviors that result in an individual's escaping or avoiding social contact

Social/Behavioral Blueprints for Violence Prevention

Sociometric procedures. Assessment strategies used to evaluate the social status or position of individuals in a particular social reference group

Specific phobia. An intense and persistent fear of a particular object or situation that may involve irrational aversion to certain things or situations such as heights, animals, escalators, injections, storms, enclosed places, tunnels, flying, insects, death, water, or seeing blood (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)

SPED: Special Education

Split-middle line of progress. A method of drawing a trend line through a set of data points drawn on a behavioral graph

SSB: Self-stimulatory behavior

Standard Score: Way to compare all tests no matter what the normal scoring. 100=average.

Static measures. Assessments that provide a report of progress at discrete points in time (e.g., annual or semiannual reassessments)

Stereotypic. Repetitive, apparently nonfunctional movements (e.g., rocking, hand-flapping) characteristic of autism and other severe behavior disorders

Stimulus control. The relationship between behavior and its antecedent in which the antecedent occasions the behavior; repeated occurrences of the behavior are dependent upon its being reinforced; an antecedent that occasions a response and therefore results in reinforcement is known as a discriminative stimulus; an antecedent that does not occasion a response and therefore does not result in reinforcement is known as an S-delta

Stimulus generalization. The transfer of behaviors that have been trained in one setting or in the presence of specific discriminative stimuli to new settings or the presence of stimuli for which they have not been taught

Stimulus variation. A procedure to increase social responsiveness in a student who habitually engages in self-stimulatory behavior

Student Assistance Program. A school-based program designed to assist school personnel in identifying issues, including alcohol, drugs and others, which pose a barrier to a student's learning and school success

STY-C: Stereotypy Checklist

Subsequent event. A stimulus that occurs after a particular behavior that does not have a functional relationship to the behavior

Successive approximations. Progressive changes in the rate, duration, or topography of behavior toward a terminal goal (see shaping)

Suicide. When someone takes his or her life with conscious intent

Summative evaluation. Evaluation done at the end of an educational program

Supported Inclusion. Providing students with disabilities with full access to the general education curriculum through physical placement in regular education classes, but also with appropriate support to both students and teachers to ensure the students' success.

Syndrome. Recurring actions or symptoms that combine to form a disordered pattern

Systems of care. Multidisciplinary approach to meeting the needs of a child with a behavior disorder in which several agencies collaborate to provide individualized services that wrap around the child and family

Tactile and sensory reinforcement. The application of tactile or sensory consequences to reinforce behavior; used primarily with students with severe and profound disabilities

Tangible reinforcement. Providing a tangible reinforcer contingent upon the occurrence of a desired behavior

Tangible reinforcers. Non-edible items given contingent upon an occurrence of desired behavior to promote the re-occurrence of that behavior

Target behaviors. Behaviors identified for change that are observable, measurable, defined so that two persons can agree as to their occurrence, and stated so that a criterion can be set for a desired level of performance

Targeted intervention. Intervention strategies specifically designed for an individual student or group of students

Task analysis. The process of breaking down a complex behavior into its component parts so that it can be taught in small, easy steps

TBI. Traumatic Brain Injury

Teacher expectations. An assessment of the value that teachers place on student behaviors

Teacher rankings. Sociometric screening procedure in which the classroom teacher generates an ordered list representing his or her perceptions of students from lowest to highest risk of either internalizing or externalizing behavior problems

Teacher-mediated interventions. Behavior management strategy that involves a teacher's direct interaction with students

Tertiary prevention. Interventions that target individuals with serious problems that constitute a chronic condition and attempt to ameliorate the effects of their condition on their daily functioning

The International Campbell Collaboration

The Morningside Model of Generative Instruction

The Promising Practices Network

The What Works Clearinghouse

Thinning reinforcement. Arranging the delivery of reinforcers to occur less frequently and less predictably following the occurrence of desired behavior

Time sampling. Observational recording system in which behavior is observed for a limited time period (e.g., 5 minutes of a 60-minute period)

Time-out. A procedure for the reduction of inappropriate behavior whereby the student is denied access, for a fixed period of time, to the opportunity to receive reinforcement

Token economy. A system of behavior management in which tangible or token reinforcers such as points, plastic chips, metal washers, poker chips, or play money are given as rewards and later exchanged for back-up reinforcers that have value in themselves (e.g., food, trinkets, play time, books); a miniature economic system used to foster desirable behavior

Tokens. Points, plastic chips, metal washers, poker chips, or play money given as rewards and later exchanged for back-up reinforcers that have value in themselves (e.g., food, trinkets, play time, books)

Transenvironmental programming. A strategy consisting of four components: (1) assessing the behavioral expectations of specific generalization settings, (2) competency training in the special education environments, (3) selection and use of techniques for promoting the transfer of skills across settings, and (4) monitoring and evaluating student performance in generalization settings

Transfer of training. See stimulus generalization

Transition plan. A program designed to help students cope with the move from one setting to the next, usually including annual goals and short- and long-term objectives

Trapping effect. Behavior is "trapped" in the natural environment when it is relevant to the student's lifestyle and needs and is reinforced by naturally occurring schedules of reinforcement, usually in the form of social attention

Treatment integrity. The degree to which intervention procedures are followed as planned

Trend lines. Lines of "best fit" that are drawn to represent the path shown by graphed data---increasing, decreasing, or level

Trends. Data points on a graph that show whether a behavior is increasing, decreasing, or remaining stable (an ascending or descending trend is defined as three consecutive data points in a single direction)

UDL: Universal Design for Learning. A reconceptualization of the curriculum so it is accessible and appropriate for students with different learning profiles. http://www.cast.org/index.html

UMO: Unconditioned motivative operation

Universal intervention. Behavior change procedure applied to an entire class or school

US Department of Health and Human Services (2006). Children's mental health facts children and adolescents with mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Retrieved February 21, 2007 Conduct systematic reviews of interventions linked to evidentiary support

Verbal aversives. Unpleasant verbal behavior (e.g., delivering a reprimand, scolding) that serves as an aversive stimulus (reduces the likelihood of behavior it follows, or increases the likelihood of behavior that successfully escapes or terminates it)

Vestibular The vestibular system is the sensory system that responds to the position of the head in relation to gravity and accelerated or decelerated movement.

Vicarious reinforcement. Reinforcement of a student for appropriate behavior so that observing students will imitate the behavior

WIAT: Weschler Individual Achievement Test

WIAT: Weschler Individual Achievement Test

Withdrawal designs. ABAB or ABA design, similar to reversal design; a type of single-subject research design that involve collecting baseline data (A), followed by an intervention condition (B), a withdrawal of intervention procedures or return to baseline conditions (A), and a reinstatement of the intervention (B)

WPPSI, WISC III, WAIS: Wechsler family of intelligence tests.

Wrap around plans consider such life domains as employment, food, clothing, transportation, and recreation. A multi-agency plan of care designed to meet the individual needs of a youth with an emotional or behavioral disorder and his or her family.

YCDD Young Child with a Developmental Delay

Weblinks

CAL Second Language Proficiency Assessment, David MacGregor http://www.cal.org/resources/faqs/rgos/assessment.html
ERIC Bibliography: K-8 Foreign Language Assessment - Oral Proficiency Testing
ERIC Digests: ACTFL Speaking Proficiency Guidelines - Alternative Assessment and Second Language Study: What and Why? - Considerations in Developing and Using Computer-Adaptive Tests to Assess Second Language Proficiency - Simulated Oral Proficiency Interviews: Recent Developments
Handbook of English Language Proficiency Tests, by Vecchio & Guerrero, New Mexico Highlands University
Language Assessment, Mora, San Diego State University
Limited English Proficiency Students and Mathematics, Bibliography, Lockwood
Massachusetts English Language Proficiency Assessment (EPA)
Michigan ELPA
Nevada English Language Proficiency Assessment (ELPA)
Oral Proficiency Testing Bibliography ERIC/CLL Minibib, 1996, Kenyon
Oregon Statewide Assessment.
Second Language Proficiency Assessment, MacGregor
Stanford English Language Proficiency Test (Stanford ELP)
Wisconsin Standards and Assessments

Using US History to Teach English Language Learners

• African American related content books. Just for Kids

• Civil War novels

• Colonial America Thematic Units (The Teacher's Corner. Net)

• English Language Teaching -- Lesson Plans (Ohio U.)

• ESL Lesson Plans and Resources (Levine, CSU)

• Mid-Continent Library Historical Fiction

• Revolutionary War (KSU)

• Revolutionary War Lesson Plans (Pro Teacher)

• Teaching About the Americas (Reta-Net)

• TESL Lessons (The Internet TESL Journal )

• US-Mexican War (Pro Teacher)

We feel uncomfortable about people who are different or things we don't understand. Our environment biases us about these labels.

What did people believe?

What Did People Believe

1700s

People with disabilities were considered highly deviant freaks. Early early Christians held this belief that something awful happened in the past.

Satan's power

Idiot or insane--"technical" term for disability. Our language has evolved. People acted like it was contagious. Children and adult with disabilities were viewed the same way. An 8-year old could end up in prison.

Punished as adults

Philippe Pinel--French physician (on test) concerned with mental illness and believed that people should be treaded humanely. He wanted to unchain people from beds, trees, and fences. He thought there should be mental hospitals. He thought insanity--people with disability--was not necessarily chronic and that recovery was possible.

John Marc Itard--French. Victor, The Wild Boy. No language or communication skills. He had never been trained or taught and no one knows how he survived until 12. Itard believed learning and socialization was possible. This was the first instance that learning was possible. Victor had minimal learning.

1800s, they thought these things caused disabilities:

Masturbation

Inhaling tobacco

Bathing in cold water

Selective breeding--thought to be a solution. People with disabilities were involuntarily sterilized. Some people--young adults--are vulnerable and done was protective factor today. Done by parents today.

Other names for institutions was asylum.

Disability was a major social problem.

Early 1900s

There was a huge influx of research.

Ellen Key was a popular author. Was supposed to be Century of the child. No longer viewed a property, get them out of the sweat shops, educate children. Didn't work out very well. Workhouse for children. There are laws to protect children--child labor laws--in the 1950s. It took 50 years.

Sigmund Freud believed that children were capable, independent beings, which was a new thought. Austrian, Psychoanalytic School of Psychology.

The Natioinal Committee for Mental Hygience founded 1918

The Council for Exceptional Children was founded in 1922.

Today we work with state and CEC standards. What they say counts.

American Orthopsychiatric Association 1924 wanted to unite the work force and study human development.

American Association on Mental Deficiency in early years.

World War I and II--lots of disabled people came back from the war, which changed some attitudes. Lots of work in psychiatric and orthopedics.

What Did People Believe

ARC Association for Retarded Citizens.

Behavioral is primarily what you see today. Pavlov. We set up contingency contracts, set up rules. You can shape behavior based on the reaction.

Biogenic is the medical model, built around the idea that biology and genetic factors have to be addressed for you to have the highest quality of life. Might use medication, for example, to stabilize the chemical imbalances that interfere with learning.

Ecological says it's based on the environment.

Eco-behavioral. User friendly content, classroom, and combine with clear behavior expectations.

Humanistic is very individualized.

Legislative Acts

Brown v. Board of Education overturned Plessy v. Ferguson that was civil rights legislation. There were three combined cases. Separate is inherently UNequal. Although a racial issue, has been used for students with disabilities. Still a foundation today.

Unalterable characteristics--culture, national heritage, language, race, ability. You cannot be denied on these bases.

Kennedy signed legislation that de-institutionalized mentally ill. Kennedy had a sister named Rosemary with mental retardation, so he pushed for legislation because of his personal concern.

Voc Rehab Act is an access law. Children often served under 504. No funding attached. No overt services to pay for. Allows for notetakers, a locker on the end of the row, extra test time. You can write a 504 plan for accommodations, but no actual services. May provide organizational skills. Specific placement in a classroom. Assignments broken down more specifically. Just giving the child a better option for learning.

Put kid who is bouncing around with ADHD in the back of the classroom so he or she doesn't have an audience.

504 is NOT special ed. If a school receives any funding for anything, they are required by law to provide 504 services, or they will lose federal funding. Should all happen within regular education. General educators often don't want to participate. Everybody does it today; it's not a choice. There's always someone responsible for 504 coordination in every school. A student doesn't have to qualify for special education to qualify for 504.

Due process--no one can take your rights away without the opportunity to tell your side of the story. Children are citizens.

91-142 That is the first federal law providing special education services.

Prior to this law, the state, district was responsible for education. There's no requirement that the federal law provide education. The constitution said it's left up to the states. When; this law was passed, it was the first time the federal government got involved.

Current funding is at about 18%. States are required, but provided a small portion of funds.

Part B applies to K-12 education.

EHA eventually became IDEA

Federally Funded Disabilities

1. Mental retardation

2. Specific learning disability

3. Seriously emotionally disturbed

4. Speech or language impairment

5. Vision loss/blindness

6. Hearing loss/deafness

7. Orthopedic impairments

8. Other Health impairments

9. Deafness-Blindness

10. Multiple disaiblities. 

11. Autism

12. Traumatic brain injury

13. YCDD Young Child with a Developmental Delay

Need to know 13 funded areas.

Seriously Emotionally Disturbed in now called EBD Emotional Behavior Disorders. You need to memorize this list for the test.

Mental retardation used to use a discrepancy model. Now using Response to Intervention.

Seriously Emotionality Disturbed.

Speech or language is one of the most served.

Vision is one of the least served.

Multiple disabilities: seriously involved, severe, lot of adults in the classroom to help.

YCDD: Young child with a developmental disability. Sometimes young children develop at different rates. With more time, the disability becomes clear. No child identified this way is going to be a typical learner. Often on autism spectrum, but can't figure it out yet, for example. Get services since they are very young. The diagnosis gives more time for whatever is going on to clarify. Missouri says no, and gives regular disability label at age 5 (instead of age 8). Sometimes kids that are on autism spectrum turn out to have Tourettes and OCD.

Special education ends when child graduates, ages out, or quits school.

1975 act. They passed the law, then it has to be reauthorized.

There are many people with a huge emotional investment in this, so it becomes a battleground.

1990 reauthorized as IDEA. Big changes--categories of autism and traumatic brain injury added.

1997 IDEA reauthorized. Lots of changes. Huge push for keeping kids safe and disciplinary action because of Columbine. Parents wanted more services. Ultimately came down to being safe. Kids with disabilities now treated the same way regarding a weapon. Changed transition. Planning for transition at 14 and statement in IEP in 16. Should be done as early as possible.

If a student with an IEP does something awful behaviorally. Determine whether manifestation of the disability. If caused by disability, the child gets extra support in some way to stay in educational setting. If not, the student can be suspended up to ten days in any given school year. Kids with disability are suspended less often. Once 11 days, a whole legal process kicks in. They spend more time in ISS because most schools don't count that as suspension.

Safe Schools Act breakdown
The Safe Schools Act, contained in sections 160.261–160.272 of the Revised Statutes of Missouri, can be broken down into four main areas:

1. Each local school board shall establish a written discipline policy.

2. The policy shall require administrators to report acts of school violence to district employees with a “need to know.”

3. Administrators must report to law enforcement students’ acts that would constitute a felony if adults committed them.

4. The policy shall provide for a one-year suspension or expulsion of a student who brings a weapon to school in violation of school policy.

2004 Changed name. Don't see a lot of improvement. Tells us what we have to do. 18 months to 2 years after, the govt. provides regulations that tell us HOW to implement the law.

If a child isn't learning, use RTI, take data, work with the student, to see if he can learn. If can learn, the problem was bad teaching. If a strategy doesn't work, then try another strategy. No indication of how long to try strategy, how many strategies, or what to do when you're done. Change strategies in 2-3 weeks and should do more than four strategies. Some districts are using this approach to avoid providing strategies. Districts have used RTI to identify behavior disorders, which the law doesn't include. None of these strategies have been validated for the purpose of assessment.

As the law changes, what we do as teachers changes.

Will be reauthorized again around 2011.

No Child Left Behind is the elementary-secondary authorization. Will never go away.

Regular education classes.

Regular class with support.

Part time special education

Full time special education

Special schools

Residential

Homebound--out of control behavior. Even if kid is thrown out of school permanently. If IEP says they get 100 minutes a week, they still get it no matter where they are. No one can take away the special education minutes.

Hospital

Non-educational services. (speech and transportation)

PL 94-142
1975

Comes out of penal code. Being in prison is a restriction of civil rights. General education classroom would be the main place to be.

IDEA 1990

Applies primarily to the workplace, but generally doesn't apply to the students.

Not all districts have social workers, so won't include social work services.

You can't say a kid can't come to school (zero exclusion). No one gets excluded. Not allowed to set quotas. Can group students with unusual disabilities.

IDEA 1997

Understand discipline requirements for the exam.

Discipline Requirements
IDEA 1997

A child might be removed until manifestation determination hearing.

IDEA 2004 (IDEIA)

Serious bodily injury to oneself or others.

Aligns with NCLB.

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)

What are differences between plans IFSP, IEP, ITP.

This is what you write for the little kids. This is what happens in birth to two. Community and family focused instead of school and academic focused. Services come to family in home or daycare facility. Actually identify the services child eligible for.

Individual Education Plan (IEP)

Make sure you know what goes into the plan.

AKA Individual Education Program

Must be data based.

Determine annual goals and short-term objectives. Must be data and assessment.

If taking alternative assessments, but have short-term objectives.

How many minutes a week is the child spending in general education classroom? Least restrictive environment.

Need to know how much time with special services and explain why.

Transition plan for any child 16 or older.

Evaluation plan--how will we know whether the student meets the goals and objectives, and how that evaluation plan will be shared with the parents.

Individual Transition Plan (ITP)

Helps kids make transition from school to community. Age 16. May be part of IEP or a separate document, depending on the school district.

Designed to take children to post school environment.

Must be in place on or before birthday. Usually add transition plan to IEP.

Outcomes oriented (transition goals)

Goals in the area of employment, recreation, community living, and agency support services.

Lots of kids with disabilities graduate and go to college.

CASCADE OF SERVICES REGARDING ACADEMICS

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) All levels must be offered.

1. General education classroom for as many kids as possible. Some will be full inclusion and some partial inclusion. 20% out of classroom, considered on the the services below. If in classroom more than 80% child is in general education with support.

2. Resource room. Pull-out of general education classroom. Self-contained classroom. All academics in self-contained classroom (100%). Sometimes MR, EBD, a few LD. It's part of the continuum of services. Some schools don't have self-contained and if don't, the school must pay for the child to go into another district or be bused somewhere for this.

3. Special day school like state school for the deaf. The school itself is located away from the public school. Includes alternative day school. No opportunity to mingle with people without a disability.

4. Residential (Ozanam). Hospitals, Psychiatric Facility, Homebound, Institutionalized With homebound, can send a teacher as little as two times a week for as little time as the IEP says. Kid probably has little supervision from parents too.

Most restrictive

National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction and may occur across the lifespan. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance), or with extrinsic influences (cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or influences.

LD kids are normal or high intelligence.

As get older--Some kids learn how to compensate, others drop out. Presumed to last across the lifetime.

Secondary characteristics: problems in social perception or social interaction. There are a lot of secondary characteristics.

By the time in second or third grade, few kids with LD have many friends.

Co-morbid: occurring at the same time, concomitantly. Not a separate diagnosis in itself. Deals with secondary characteristics.

Dual diagnosis: Has two disabilities that seem primary, each a thing of itself. Only through testing do we recognize this.

15-20 (Missouri) difference between verbal IQ and performance, then qualifies as a disability.

States are given much control over education services. There's even variance between school districts. Usually does not go in favor of the child.

4.45% of the school aged population should have learning disabilities.

Accounts for 51% of ALL disabilities. By far the broadest category. Autism and ADHD seems to be moving that direction for a larger percentage.

Most kids take the same MAP as everyone.  The alternative testing is saved for kids who are severely disabled.  If they have an accommodation in their IEP, then the teacher can do that for the MAP.

25 years ago it was pretty easy for a teacher to say a child needs to be tested.  LD tends to run in families and be more prevalent in boys, which is why we know it's genetic.  Now we have a lot of pre-assessment (RTI).  Have to put together an RTI plan where document trying different strategies over weeks. Each modification goes for two weeks of testing.  If something works, then serve the child with those interventions.  All schools have to do outreach through Kindergarten screening to work with kids early without a label.

Interventions are very individualized:

• Medical (not much works)  Many kids with LD become depressed.

• Academics (most common)  Look at what types of processing disorders the child has and find ways to compensate (don't fix).

• Behavioral

Kansas, California, New York have more stringent laws and serve more students.

Talk about graduate project 7-7:15 29th.

Learning Disabilities:

• Skills are not low, but different.

• Dyslexia.

• Not processing in a typical way.

• Difficulty in processing.

• Reading comprehension.

How Difficult Can that Be? Fat City Video 1990s. Dr. Rick Lavoie. Did workshops giving people a feeling of what a learning disability.

Many kids will have 3 or 6 or multiple components.

LEARNING DISABILITIES

Pacing is extremely important. We don't give students enough wait time. We typically wait 1/2 second for easy questions.

One student had a wait-time of 32 seconds before she could answer. By then, everyone was on to other things.

Team teaching or class within a class come in.

F.A.T. City Video Worksheet

1.       What is the most common problem in getting students with learning disabilities to take risks?

        Fear of failure.  It gets worse the older the child is.  Children with learning disabilities do not like to draw attention to their inabilities.  When they raise their hands to answer a question, there is a strong chance that they will be wrong; so, over time they volunteer to participate less and less.  In addition, the negative experience of being wrong outweighs the minimal positive reinforcement given for participation.

2.       Motivation is or is not a problem for students with learning disabilities?  

        They can't see something they cannot visually discriminate no matter how hard they try (cow picture=$100).  They later act like they don't care because they can't do it, but that's not motivation.  Motivation is NOT the issue for children with learning disabilities.  They are trying hard already to understand something.  The problem is not "wanting" to complete a task; but, being ABLE to complete a task.  Direct instruction is the most important factor in helping children with learning disabilities learn new information. 

Motivation is a huge factor with students with ADHD.

3.       What is the difference between and “associative” and a “cognitive” task”?

Associative tasks are things that you can do more than one of at a time.  For example, most of us can drive a car and carry on a conversation with the passenger at the same time.  However, if the weather suddenly turns bad and we are in the middle of a hazardous rainstorm, all of our concentration must be focused on the task of driving.  Cognitive task requires full concentration.  For some LD kids, processing the question, taking notes, listening, may not be able to speak at the same time they have to do something else, using motor processes can be cognitive tasks.  Driving is now a cognitive task, something which takes all of our focus and keeps us from being able to do anything else in combination with this task.  For many students with learning disabilities, speaking and/or listening is a cognitive task.

4.       Most teachers (93%) teach comprehension through vocabulary. What concept is more relevant to comprehension?

        Schemata or frame of reference has more to do with comprehensive than the vocabulary in a passage.  If we do not have the background to understand a situation, we can know all the "words" involved but still not be able to make sense of what we have read or heard.   He showed a piece of paper about a scientific idea where we understood all the words, but not the idea.  Vocabulary alone doesn't mean comprehension.  Kids cannot be expected to spell words they cannot read.  Some have strong rote memories, particularly for areas of interest, but cannot transfer that over.

5.       Why does spatial orientation cause problems for some students with learning disabilities?

        Prior to reading, everything in the environment stays the same no matter what the orientation.  That changes upon the process of reading and writing.  That's an abstract construct that kids are exposed to in a reading environment.  They may look at a b and see a p.  They need to know their eyes will play a trick on them and compensate. 

All kids will reverse some letters, but once they progress developmentally, we expect to see that go away around age 7 or 8 completely.  It's  a common reading disability:  dyslexia.  They hang on to that much longer.  The skill is developmental, but we believe there's a neurological glitch that happens in some kids with LD.

We are taught from birth that objects remain constant regardless of their spatial orientation.  For example, if I show you a toy car, but turn it upside down, it is still a toy car.  It does not change what it is because we are viewing it from a different perspective.  However written language is impacted by spatial orientation.  The letter "b" is a b because the circle part of the letter faces to the right.  If the circle part of the letter faced to the left, we would call this the letter "d".  This concept in reading is especially difficult for children with learning disabilities because not only does orientation of the letter become crucial to identifying the letter; the child's perception of the letter does not always remain constant.  

6.       Why does Lavoie use the concept of “mirror-writing” to describe visual motor integration problems?

        When we look  in a mirror, we perceive things as backwards.  Our brains tell us one message; however, our visual system gives us another message.  This is similar to the kind of problem that children with learning disabilities have when their visual perception and their motor integration does not match.

The message your motor cortext and brain are sending you two different messages.  Visual motor integration disability--writing will be laborious or impossible task.  Help kids learn to write things they absolutely have to do, but leave handwriting behind and use computers to get rid of that barrier.

7.       What is dysnomia?  

        Word retrieval problem.  Kids with learning disabilities talk all around something.  This is a language based disability.  Hard to bring words forward and use in a spontaneous way.  Dysnomia, also know as a circumlocution problem, denotes difficulty in finding and/or storing a correct word in your brain and retrieving that word when you are ready to use it.  For example, I might be looking at a chair; however, I am unable to think of the word chair, therefore, I describe everything about the chair but can't locate the correct word to name it directly.  For many children with dysnomia, speaking becomes a cognitive experience. Speaking is normally an associative activity. It flows. For dysnomics it is however a cognitive task.

8.       What is hyperlexia?

        Hyper meaning too much, and lexia means reading.  Too much reading.  The kid can read way above what they can understand.  Hyperlexia is a condition where the child is able to sound out and pronounce words correctly but does not understand/comprehend what he/she has read.  The ability to decode is strong, but there is no understanding of the concepts being read.  Hyperlexia is often referred to as "word calling".

Instructional reading level:  ready to be taught.

Frustration level:  Too difficult.  Most of us can understand something if someone else reads to us.  We can understand more than we can decode.  Kids with hyperlexia can decode.  They have the opposite.  They are just word calling because they don't get the concept.

9.       What does Lavoie say is the greatest gift teachers can give students with learning disabilities?

        The greatest gift you can give to students with learning disabilities is the gift of TIME.  Time to process both questions and answers.  Give wait time.  Let child know in advance when they will get a question.  Give them a chance to process.

10.   What does Lavoie suggest to cure teachers who ask rhetorical questions?

        Give that teacher a student who answers rhetorical questions.  For example, the teacher says "how many times do I have to tell you to put your name on your paper" and the student responds "thirty-two times".  Rhetorical questions are usually sarcastic and demeaning in nature and should be avoided in classroom settings.

Exam will be online for one week.  One access.  No time limit.  Class as usual.  Prepare well.

CONDUCT DISORDER

No special education services.  Referred to outside agencies.

There's much controversy about whether conduct disorder is separate from behavior disorder.  Missouri tries to break down to make division very specific.  States differ.  Much controversy.

EXAM

Take before next Monday 4 PM.  Only open once.  Send email if locked out.  One Child needs to be read by Monday.

REVIEW

A student is a child with a specific learning disability.  She is socially capable of working in her 6th general education classroom; however, she reads on a kindergarten level.  Resource Room would provide Melinda's LRE.

In the 1950's special education meant segregated education.

Under the discipline requirements set forth by IDEA 2004, a student can be expelled for an offense under that a manifestation determination hearing determines that the offense was not a result of the student's disability.

ITP is an outcomes-oriented process that considers how a student will function in the employment market.

The Zero Exclusion principle in IDEA requires that public schools provide special education and related services to meet the needs of all students.

Permits funding sources is NOT a problem with assigning a label to describe a disability.

Home Schooling is NOT part of the continuum of services in special education.

The acronym I.D.E.A. stands for Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

Autism, TBI, and learning disabilities are among the current thirteen federally funded special education areas.

IDEA 1990 added autism & traumatic brain injury to the federally funded disability areas. 

According to the diagnostic criteria of DSM-IV-TR, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) may be defined as a disorder in youngsters who have a persistent pattern of inattention.

A student  is a young woman who may have ADHD as she exhibits inattentiveness and daydreaming more often than her peers.  This sort of  ADHD behavior has likely led to the under identification of females with ADHD.

There are two types of onset for a conduct disorder diagnosis.  Childhood onset is more resistant to successful intervention.

A student who participates in fire setting is exhibiting a characteristic of a Conduct disorder.

The IDEA defines the category of seriously emotionally disturbed using the following criteria: Is an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

Spitting on a sibling represents an externalizing disorder.

A person reports that her 12 year old son has, for the past year, been persistently eating paint chips and plaster.  This is an example of  Pica.

A student is a 13 year old with a documented early history of grossly inadequate parental care.  He exhibits noticeably abnormal and developmentally inept social relatedness.  It is likely that he has Reactive attachment disorder.

Conservative governmental estimates of the number of children who need special education for behavior disorders are 1 - 2%.

As defined in IDEA, the learning difficulties that students with emotional and behavior disorders exhibit are NOT due to mild retardation.

Students with emotional and behavior disorders in contrast to other students with disabilities fail more classes.  

Educating Peter had Downs Syndrome, a type of mental retardation.

Can have a change of placement for 45 days for IEP and manifestation hearing. 1997 Reauthorization.

Mary Kay Farrow--Gifted and Talented

Call the teacher of gifted--a facilitator, not a gifted teacher.  There are negative connotations to gifted teacher. 

Association for Underachieving Gifted Students

May be gifted in some areas and not others.

It's the educator's job to challenge.  These kids have a right to an education commensurate with their ability.  My obligation is to differentiate in the classroom so that every child is educated to his or her ability.

Rights.

The right to be interested.

The right to be challenged.

The right to explore interests in depth.

The right to create products or performances for real-world consumption.

They have a right to be excused from drill on material already mastered.

The right to contact with intellectual peers.

The right to be involved in decision-making about his or her educational programs.  Write a contract or compact to help them meet needs on individual level.  Kansas has mandated and requires IEP.  Missouri encourages meeting needs of gifted children on their academic or creative level.

The right to express divergent points of view.

The right to be unique and different in a society that values conformity and equality.

The right to have time for thinking and dreaming.

The right to have support and stimulation from significant adults.

The right to fail.

Be the guide on the side, not the sage on the sage.

What gifted kids do best--think--but have to have time to think.

Started in 1974 in Missouri for 7 programs, few students, few teachers.  Now 291 programs.  835 teachers today.

Legislature is generous with money in Missouri.  No federal funding for gifted.  Kansas does give a lot of money, but provide some access to gifted educator.  Kansas was assured of program, Missouri one of the top 5-7 funding states in US.  Have 2 summer programs--Missouri scholars in Columbia and Missouri arts in Springfield.  Dual high school and college credit on University campus.  Get contact with intellectual peers.  Rigorous acceptance policy at both academies.  3 week experience.

Gifted and talented kids are at risk of becoming chronic underachievers and discipline problems.

May not like school any more than any other kid.  Boring.

The philosophy is often to not worry about gifted kids because they will make it on their own.  They don't.  They should like school if teacher is doing the right job.  Without special programs, gifted kids have a hard time.

Average gifted 125-130.  5% of population.  Probably more like 7-8%.  Profoundly gifted at 1/2 of 1% of the nation. 150 exception  165 profoundly gifted.  Most tests cut off at 165.

St. Louis and Kansas have two programs for the profoundly gifted.  Start at 150. Totally differentiated to needs of individual students.

Gifted kids often are disruptive, restless, bored, class clowns, or totally introverted.

Perfectionism doesn't necessarily mean gifted.

They can drop out of school or college.

Out of sync with the world.

Teachers are not trained well in this area.

We have to let the students bloom.

Textbooks are designed for status quo, not for the bright child.

Gifted students sit and wish for the child to be over.

Some schools are ready, some are not.

Every teacher needs to be concerned about every child.

Can be gifted and have learning problems.

Children are not gifted in every subject.

Gifted children are all nationalities and ethnicities.

They don't have it made.

Intense loneliness, ridiculed, perfectionist for the most part, 44% commit suicide. The world doesn't understand them.

PEGS program in Kansas City.

IQ test end of 3rd grade.

May not like the mechanics, mathematical drills, handwriting, spelling.

Can work independently.  Like to work with peers.  Don't like doing all the work all the time, always being the leader.

:Lots of energy.  Need time to be themselves.  Relate well to adults because understand their language.  Most gifted girls do well in elementary school, hit a slump in 7, 8, 9th grade.  Girls become embarrassed about being bright.

Often well organized or total sloppy.  Mentally know where it is.

Intrinsic motivation for learning.  Would rather do it themselves.  Read.  Make associations.  Make references to books and magazines they've read in the past.  They like to pursue intellectual things, games, anything challenging.  Easy to find cause and effect, good at critical thinking, they often criticize others.  They need to be taught how to criticize and how to criticize adults.

Compact their work.  Do a fewer number, but prove mastery at 90%.

Have the kid make up the lesson plan for the week.  May want to use oral testing--assessment.

Parents will test teachers.  You have to be fair with the children.  Cannot play favorites.  Any child can be in any group, but if frustrated, angry, or depressed, don't push the child into that group.  Try to get child to push himself or herself to another group.

Have to be taught not to be a know-if-all even if they do.  Play on the student's natural maturity.  They know it, get excited, and get defensive, and comes across as know it all or defensive.

Need a respectful teacher-student-teacher relationship.

Fairness doesn't mean everyone gets the same, it means that everyone gets what they need.

1. Hearing loss or deafness

2. Autism

3. Vision Loss Blindness

4. Emotional and behavior disorder--Seriously Emotionally Disturbed

1. Mental retardation

2. Orthopedic impairments

3. Deafness-Blindness

1. Speech or language disability

2. Young children with developmental disability

3. Specific learning disability

4. Traumatic brain injury

5. Other health impairment

6. Multiple disabilities
    

HAVE MOD SYSTOM

Giftedness

There are a lot of issues around tracking.  Certain kinds of tracking can be illegal and unethical.

Our hope is that all classrooms are differentiated in all general education classrooms.

We do separate ourselves later in life through our employment, social strata, etc.

A set of administrators cannot determine what kinds of courses students will take.  Can't put kids into a niche and not offer opportunities.

In secondary, usually see kids take honors courses, go to community college two periods a day, that kind of thing.  More options at that level.

Today includes more than IQ, like leadership skills, performing arts, social skills.

Ask a lot of questions.  Good memory.  Sophisticated sense of humor.  Long attention span.  Insights into problems come without a lot of work.  Intuitively know what direction should work.  Grapple with material differently, take to new heights of learning.  Sometimes their curiosity overwhelms teachers.  Absorb material so fast that they get impatient.  Don't have intellectual peers, so may be loners.

May do higher grade level work.

One approach has been to put gifted children together.  It always helps to find other people like me.  There's an anti-intellectual bias in our country.  Issues of segregation.

Differentiating curriculum is another approach.

Some teachers will allow gifted children to chart their own path and work independently.

Often good students and enthused about school.  Sometimes never get to express their talents so they underachieve, get in trouble, are not motivated, drop out.  If aren't challenged by age 6 or 7 will build a pattern of underachieving.  Tremendous nervousness, desire to have things perfect, give teacher what she wants.  Don't want to outshine their peers, so mask their giftedness.

Skip a grade.  Problems:  Reach puberty later, get license later, graduate high school age 16 and go to college.

Parents can "You are going to be your child's best advocate.  And you'll have to be."  Supplement the child's education to stimulate underdeveloped gifts and higher level thinking.  Read high level books.  Appreciate them and encourage their expression of uniqueness.  Can talk with them at an adult level.  They're still children.

IQ tests for learning potential, not what you've learned.  Mean 100.  69 Retarded.

Average 85-115.  One standard deviation above and below.

Reinforcement Pyramids Ideas